The Politics of Greek Environmental Policy

Beginning of article

Environmental politics and policy in industrializing countries such as Mexico, India, and Brazil have historically been interpreted in terms of their level of socioeconomic or political development (de Araujo Castro, 1972; Enloe, 1975, ch. 4; World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). This pattern contrasts sharply with the plethora of studies that address the variation of environmental policy within and among advanced industrial countries (Vogel with Kun, 1987; Heidenheimer, Heclo, & Adams, 1990, ch. 9). Only recently have case studies of specific industrializing countries addressed both level of development and domestic complexities (Leonard, 1985; Mumme, Bath, & Assetto, 1988; Ross, 1988; Guimaraes, 1991). The general thesis of this article is that while Greece is also subject to a number of structural constraints characteristic of industrializing countries, domestic political relations and institutional factors must be taken into account if we are to understand its environmental policy trajectory and thus be able to compare it to that of other countries (Kamieniecki and Sanasarian, 1990).

During the last twenty years Greek environmental policy has proliferated, in large part due to European integration. While there have been some successes, the general sense is that the country has lagged behind in the implementation of policy. Sometimes this is the result of unwillingness or inability to implement existing policy. More frequently it is due to the difficulties of formulating policy that is implementable.(1) What factors account for these problems of policy formation and implementation? This article provides an overview of the politics of environmental policy in Greece and draws upon the evidence to challenge two prominent assumptions of the level of development approach (Horowitz, 1989).

The first assumption is that nonpolitical factors, namely economic and technical constraints, can best account for the problems of environmental policy formation and implementation. The second assumption is that these problems are due to the overall institutional limitations of the state in less industrial countries.

It stands to reason that less industrial countries may not have the economic and technical means to rectify some environmental problems. While this may be the case in particular instances it cannot always be so, especially when those same countries spend large amounts of money on other massive projects (Adler, 1988). This case study examines the ways in which political constraints and calculations influence environmental policy. In particular, emphasis is placed on the sensitivity of the Greek state to various societal interests, a sensitivity that is accentuated by the nature of the country's party system.(2)

The second assumption is that the state in less industrial countries does not possess the "penetrative capacity" necessary for policy formation and implementation (Horowitz, 1989, p. 201). There is strong evidence, however, that industrializing countries pursue complicated policies, such as strategies of import substitution, social security programs, and advanced technology projects, over long periods of time. Equally relevant, therefore, is the question of why certain institutional capacities remain undeveloped, long after relevant problems have become salient. One type of explanation can be found in the historical characteristics of particular states (Skocpol, 1985); quite often primary obstacles to institutional innovations come from older agencies and existing policy routines. In the case of Greece, the direct economic role of the state and its strategy of large infrastructural projects have affected both institutional formation and environmental policy.(3)

The first part of the article provides an overview of the country's major environmental problems and policies, concentrating on the urban environment. The second part examines the politics of environmental policy during the last twenty years. This account, in turn, is divided into four subperiods, each characterized by distinct dynamics in the area of environmental policy. In the conclusion the evidence is brought together to assess the roles of state agencies and societal interests and to evaluate the impacts of political pressures and institutional characteristics on environmental policy formation and implementation.

Major Environmental Issues and Policies, 1972-1992.

Urban Environmental Problems

Most analysts agree that urban atmospheric pollution and wastes are the most salient environmental problems in Greece (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development |OECD~, 1983; Cleaning up the Mediterranean, 1991/1992).(4) Their primacy is explained by the same factors that explain much in Greek politics: they affect the two major urban metropolitan centers of Athens and Salonika (OECD, 1983; Leontidou, 1990). Similar problems face practically every other city in Greece. Since over 60% of the country's ten million people live in cities, the problems of atmospheric pollution and wastes are truly national problems.

Evidence of atmospheric pollution in Athens was first reported in 1966. Since then both the problem and information about it have continued to grow. Transportation is the major cause of "nefos" (smog), the most visible manifestation of urban pollution. More than 50% of all the vehicles of the country are to be found in and around Athens and Salonika, and their number has doubled since 1983 (National Statistical Service of Greece, 1990, p. 82). In addition to the large and increasing TABULAR DATA OMITTED number of vehicles, the lack of catalytic converters and the inefficient street systems further compound their impacts.

Industry is the other major contributor to atmospheric pollution. More than half of Greece's nonextractive, heavy industry is to be found in the peripheries of Athens and Salonika.(5) Almost all of the largest of these factories were built during the 1960s and early 1970s, a period of rapid and unregulated growth.

Coastal water pollution is extremely pronounced in the Saronikos and Thermaikos Gulfs where the effluent wastes of Athens and …