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CONTENTS |
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List of Figures |
ix |
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List of Tables |
xiii |
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Foreword, by Raymond Arsenault and Gary Mormino |
xv |
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Acknowledgments |
xvii |
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Introduction |
1 |
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Part One: The Pre-Flagler Era |
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| 1. |
Blacks in Early South Florida (1646-1895) |
7 |
| 2. |
Blacks in Early Miami (1896-1926) |
51 |
| 3. |
Blacks in Early Dade County (1896-1926) |
101 |
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Part Two: The Barriers Fall |
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| 4. |
The Pre-Civil Rights Period (1926-1945) |
143 |
| 5. |
The Dade County Civil Rights Movement (1944-1970) |
171 |
| 6. |
School Desegregation |
224 |
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Part Three: Race Riots and Civil Disturbances (1968-1995) |
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| 7. |
Prelude to the 1980 Riot |
245 |
| 8. |
Riots of the 1980s |
267 |
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Part Four: Blacks in Contemporary Dade County |
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| 9. |
Blacks and Immigration in South Florida |
317 |
| 10. |
Current Status of Blacks in Dade County: An Overview |
334 |
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Epilogue |
371 |
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Notes |
375 |
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Bibliography |
383 |
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Index |
393 |
| 1. |
Black Caesar shipwrecked off coast, late 1600 s 8 |
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| 2. |
Cape Florida lighthouse 12 |
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| 3. |
Early black settlers on Plantation Key, circa 1895 15 |
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| 4. |
John Horse ("Gopher John") , interpreter for the Seminoles 20 |
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| 5. |
Negro Abraham and Seminole chiefs 21 |
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| 6. |
Fort King Road 23 |
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| 7. |
Old slave quarters, Fort Dallas 30 |
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| 8. |
Hurst starch mill, early 1900 s 32 |
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| 9. |
Peacock Inn, 1884 34 |
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| 10. |
Bahamian employees of the Peacock Inn 35 |
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| 11. |
Mariah Brown home 36 |
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| 12. |
Odd Fellows Hall, Coconut Grove 37 |
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| 13. |
E. W. F. Stirrup 39 |
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| 14. |
Stirrup home 39 |
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| 15. |
Charlotte Jane Memorial Cemetery 40 |
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| 16. |
Black community of Coconut Grove, mid- 1880 s 40 |
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| 17. |
Julia Tuttle 45 |
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| 18. |
Henry M. Flagler 46 |
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| 19. |
Orange grove near DeLand after the Great Freeze of 1894 49 |
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| 20. |
John Sewell 52 |
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| 21. |
Groundbreaking for Royal Palm Hotel, 1896 54 |
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| 22. |
Tents in early , circa 1896 55 |
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| 23. |
John Sewell 's "black artillery" 58 |
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| 24. |
Royal Palm Hotel 59 |
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| 25. |
Black workers on , circa 1900 60 |
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| 26. |
Street scene in early Colored Town 62 |
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| 27. |
Postcard of black , 1906 65 |
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| 28. |
Josephine Dillard Powell , pioneer 66 |
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| 29. |
Grandchildren of pioneers Shadrack and Lucretia Ward 67 |
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| 30. |
Maxie Ford and Horace S. Sharpe , pioneers 69 |
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| 31. |
Marshall Williamson , South pioneer 71 |
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| 32. |
Arthur Mays , black south Dade pioneer 72 |
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| 33. |
Polly Mays, black south Dade pioneer 72 |
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| 34. |
Johnny "Cat Man" Everett 72 |
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| 35. |
Camp Miami, 1898 75 |
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| D. |
A. Dorsey 79 |
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| 37. |
Dorsey house 80 |
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| 38. |
Florence Gaskins 82 |
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| 39. |
Washing clothes in Colored Town 82 |
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| 40. |
J and S Building, Cola-Nip Bottling Company 83 |
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| 41. |
Dr. W. B. Sawyer 84 |
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| 42. |
Opening of Christian Hospital, 1918 85 |
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| 43. |
Dr. William Chapman house 86 |
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| 44. |
Ad for Colored Town Bargain Store 89 |
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| 45. |
Three members of the Reeves family, black newspaper owners 90 |
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| 46. |
Lyric Theater 91 |
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| 47. |
, 1927 93 |
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| 48. |
104 |
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| 49. |
Eliza Granberry , 104 |
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| 50. |
Students and teacher, 105 |
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| 51. |
Teaching staff, , 1937 106 |
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| 52. |
The Reverend Samuel A. Sampson 107 |
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| 53. |
Macedonia Missionary Baptist Church 107 |
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| 54. |
Colored Town funeral procession, circa 1920 108 |
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| 55. |
Greater Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church 109 |
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| 56. |
Mount Zion Baptist Church 110 |
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| 57. |
Saint Agnes Episcopal Church 111 |
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| 58. |
Christ Episcopal Church 112 |
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| 59. |
Saint John Baptist Church 114 |
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| 60. |
Mount Pleasant Missionary Baptist Church 115 |
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| 61. |
New Bethel A.M.E. Church 116 |
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| 62. |
Ku Klux Klan poster 118 |
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| 63. |
Klansmen prepare to ride in 118 |
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| 64. |
The Ku Klux Klan marching down , 1926 119 |
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| 65. |
Ku Klux Klan rally, circa 1925 123 |
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| 66. |
Postcard, circa 1925 123 |
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| 67. |
James B. Nimmo 125 |
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| 68. |
police station 132 |
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| 69. |
H. Leslie Quigg 135 |
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| 70. |
Officer Melville Tibbits 135 |
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| 71. |
Cab Calloway , the Clover Club 145 |
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| 72. |
Zebra Lounge, Mary Elizabeth Hotel 146 |
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| 73. |
Billie Holiday , Georgette's Tea Room 147 |
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| 74. |
Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority women 147 |
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| 75. |
Idle Hour Art and 148 |
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| 76. |
Miami depot of the Florida East Coast Railroad 152 |
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| 77. |
Redcaps, FEC depot, 1938 153 |
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| 78. |
Muhammad All and Malcolm X , Overtown nightclub, 1964 154 |
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| 79. |
William B. Sawyer Jr. 155 |
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| 80. |
Interstate Highway 95 through Overtown 157 |
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| 81. |
Eleanor Roosevelt , 159 |
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| 82. |
Annie M. Coleman 159 |
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| 83. |
Unidentified woman with sign 161 |
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| 84. |
Jim Crow railroad passenger car, 1948 162. |
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| 85. |
Alonzo "Pop" Kelly 165 |
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| 86. |
Horace Sharpe Jr. 166 |
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| 87. |
Liberty Square Project, circa 1937 167 |
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| 88. |
"Concrete monster" in Overtown 170 |
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| 89. |
174 |
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| 90. |
Thurgood Marshall and Miami civil rights leaders, circa 1952 176 |
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| 91. |
Martin Luther King Jr. , Variety Children's Hospital, 1966 177 |
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| 92. |
Father John E. Culmer 181 |
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| 93. |
G. E. Graves and Father R. Gibson on protest ride 183 |
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| 94. |
Dr. John O. Brown 185 |
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| M. |
Athalie Range with Reubin O. Askew , 1971 190 |
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| 96. |
Father Theodore R. Gibson 192 |
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| 97. |
Dummy burned in Colored Town, 1939 194 |
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| 98. |
Sam Solomon 197 |
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| 99. |
Blacks registering to vote as Democrats 198 |
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| 100. |
Joe Lang Kershaw 198 |
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| 101. |
Gwendolyn Sawyer Cherry 199 |
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| 102. |
Carrie P. Meek 200 |
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| 103. |
U.S. District Court Judge |
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| 104. |
Miller Dawkins and T. Willard Fair entering federal building, 1996 205 |
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| 105. |
Colored Town slum, circa 1930 209 |
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| 106. |
Carver Village bombing, 1951 211 |
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| 107. |
students 231 |
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| 108. |
National Guard, 1968 riot 250 |
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| 109. |
Dr. Johnny Jones 258 |
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| 110. |
Arthur McDuffie 269 |
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| 111. |
Officer Alex Marrero , 1980 278 |
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| 112. |
in flames, 1980 287 |
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| 113. |
Looters arguing over spoils, 1980 288 |
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| 114. |
Black business owners survey riot damage, 1980 289 |
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| 115. |
Overtown video arcade, site of Nevel Johnson's death 300 |
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| 116. |
Nevel Johnson 's brother weeps 301 |
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| 117. |
Woman and child crossing Overtown street, 1982 301 |
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| 118. |
Luis Alvarez in court, 1984 303 |
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| 119. |
Roy Black 304 |
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| 120. |
Allan Blanchard 306 |
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| 121. |
Overtown scene of Lozano shooting, 1989 307 |
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| 122. |
Alan Blanchard 's distraught mother 307 |
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| 123. |
Four men suspected of looting, 1989 308 |
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| 124. |
Officer William Lozano demonstrating firing of weapon, 1989 311 |
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| 125. |
Cuban refugees arriving in 318 |
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| 126. |
Haitians landing on south beach 322. |
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| 127. |
Dead Haitian refugees on south beach 324 |
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| 128. |
Haitians being returned to Haiti via Cuban airliner 325 |
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| 129. |
Haitian marketplace, Little Haiti 330 |
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| 130. |
Northwest Second Avenue as it appears today 340 |
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| 131. |
H. T. Smith 348 |
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2.1. Black citizens by birthplace, , 1900 61 |
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2.2. Black-owned businesses, , 1900 92 |
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2.3. Black-owned businesses, , 1915 92 |
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4.1. Black population of Dade County, 1920 - 1945 163 |
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5.1. Black state representatives 202 |
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5.2. Black state senators 202 |
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5.3. Black Dade County Commissioners 203 |
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5.4. Blacks on selected city commissions 203 |
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5.5. Black mayors 203 |
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5.6. Blacks on Dade County School Board 204 |
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6.1. , enrollment by race and ethnicity, 1990 - 1995 238 |
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6.2. , enrollment by race and ethnicity, 1995 240 |
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6.3. , black enrollment, 1991 - 1996 241 |
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10.1. Population by race and ethnicity, Dade County, 1930 - 1995 335 |
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10.2. Caribbean-blacks in Dade County by country of birth, 1980 and 1990 336 |
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10.3. Black Dade Countians' place of birth by ancestry, 1990 337 |
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10.4. Dade teen gunshot deaths by race and gender, 1987 - 1991 338 |
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10.5. Population of black neighborhoods, Dade County, 1960 - 1900 342 |
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10.6. Black population, selected Dade County cities, 1950 - 1990 343 |
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10.7. Income distribution of black families, Dade County, 1980 - 1990 344 |
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10.8. Family income distribution by race, Dade County, 1989 345 |
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10.9. Family income distribution among Caribbean-born blacks by country of birth, Dade County, 1989 346 |
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10.10. Income by race and Hispanic origin, total and selected counties (persons twenty-five and older) 350 |
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10.11. Persons below poverty level by race and Hispanic origin, total United States and Dade County, 1969 - 1989 352 |
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10.12. The nation's poorest cities, 1990 354 |
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10.13. Households receiving food stamps and/or AFDC by race and Hispanic origin, Dade and Monroe Counties, 1987 and 1990 358 |
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10.14. Maximum monthly allotment, Food Stamp Program, 1983 - 1995 359 |
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10.15. Persons sixty-five or older living alone by race, Hispanic origin, and gender, Dade County, 1990 361 |
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10.16. K-12, enrollment by race and Hispanic origin, Dade County public schools, 1995 - 1996 362 |
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10.17. Number of high school graduates by race and Hispanic origin, Dade County, 1989 - 1994 362 |
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10.18. Educational attainment by race and Hispanic origin (persons twenty-five and older), Dade County, 1970 - 1990 363 |
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10.19. Educational attainment of Caribbean-born blacks (twenty-five and older) by country of birth, Dade County, 1990 365 |
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10.20. School enrollment by race and Hispanic origin (persons fifteen to seventeen), Dade County, 1990 366 |
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10.21. Public- and private-school enrollment (elementary to high school) by race and Hispanic origin, Dade County, 1990 366 |
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10.22. School enrollment (persons eighteen to twenty-four) by gender, race, and Hispanic origin, Dade County, 1990 367 |
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