Marco Polo

Polo, Marco - märˈkō pōˈlō, 1254?–1324?, Venetian traveler in China. His father, Niccolò Polo, and his uncle, Maffeo Polo, had made (1253–60) a trading expedition to Constantinople. A war blocked their return, and they journeyed eastward to reach Kublai Khan's eastern capital at Kaifeng in 1266. They returned to Venice in 1269, and in 1271 they left with Marco for Kublai's court. The party reached Cambuluc (modern Beijing) in 1275. Marco Polo became a favorite of the khan, who employed him on business in central and N China and in the states of SE Asia, including India. For three years he apparently ruled a Chinese city (Yangchow). In 1292 the travelers, acting as escort for a wife of the khan of Persia, left Kublai's realm and were back in Venice in 1295. Marco Polo soon joined the Venetian forces fighting Genoa and was taken prisoner (1296). During his two-year captivity he dictated an account of his travels. The prologue of the work tells of Polo's life. The remainder of the book describes places he had visited and heard of and recounts the customs of the inhabitants. Polo made reference to much of Asia, including the Arab world, Persia, Japan, Sumatra, and the Andaman Islands, and to E Africa as far south as Zanzibar. He told of paper currency, asbestos, coal, and other phenomena virtually unknown in Europe. Polo was wonder-struck at Asian splendors and was sometimes credulous of exaggerated accounts, but scholars agree that his accurate reports of the events he witnessed and people he met are of great value. During the Renaissance it was the chief—almost the sole—Western source of information on the East, and until the late 19th cent. there was no other European material on many parts of central Asia. Of the annotated translations of his book the most useful is that by Sir Henry Yule (3d ed. 1903).

See studies by M. S. Collis (1960), H. H. Hart (1967), C. A. Burland (1970), and J. Larner (1999).

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Marco Polo

1.

Did Marco Polo Go to China?
by Frances Wood. 188 pgs.

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Contents

Acknowledgements

Introduction

1: The Bare Details

2: Why Go at All?

3: Missionaries Nose to Tail

4: Prester John and the Magi

5: Not an Itinerary

6: The Ghost Writer and the First Fan

7: The Language of the Text

8: Omissions and Inclusions

9: Ice-Cream and Spaghetti

10: Walls Within Walls

11: He Missed the Biggest Wall

12: Not Unique and Certainly Not a Sieire Engineer

13: Who Were the Polos?

14: Was It China?

15: A Significant Absence

Conclusions

Afterword to the American Edition

Notes

Bibliography

Index
2.

Explorers' Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record of Geographical Discovery (Chap. I "Marco Polo and the Mapmakers")
by R. A. Skelton. 337 pgs.

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Foreword

Acknowledgements

Publisher's Note

Part One: The Way of the East

Part Two: The Way of the West

Part Three: The Way of the North

Part Four: The Spice Islands and Cathay

Part Five: The South Sea

Part Six: The Continents and the Poles

Afterword

Bibliographical Note

Index
3.

China and the West: A Sketch of Their Intercourse (1925) (Chap. V "Marco Polo, the Early European Missionaries, and the Fall of the Mongols")
by W. E. Soothill. 219 pgs.

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PREFACE

CONTENTS

I Introductory: Early Foreign Intercourse

Ii Foreign Intercourse Before the Mongol Conquest of China

Iii Buddhists, Arabs, Christians and Others, Before the Mongol Invasion

Iv the Mongols

V Marco Polo, the Early European Missionaries, and the Fall of the Mongols

Vi the Opening of the Sea Route and the Advent of the English

Vii Chinese Expansion and the Advent of Other Nations

Viii English Trading Relations

Ix Opium and the Opium War

X the Taiping Rebellion and the 'Arrow' War

Xi the Customs; Rebellions; Wars with France and Japan

Xii Reform

Xiii Reaction

Xiv Revolution, Republic, Ruin, Renaissance

Xv East and West

APPENDIX

INDEX
4.

The Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy (Chap. XX "Marco Polo's Millions")
by Michael Prawdin, Eden Paul, Cedar Paul. 587 pgs.

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Contents

Maps

Prologue: Europe Awaits King David

Part One: Jenghiz Khan

Chapter I: Young Temuchin

Chapter II: Expanding Power

Chapter III: Alliance with the Khan of the Keraits

Chapter IV: Danger Threatens

Chapter V: Enghiz Khan of Khans

Chapter VI: Training of the Mongols

Chapter VII: The Chinese War

Chapter VIII: The World in the West

Chapter IX: War Against the Shah

Chapter X: A War of Annihilation

Chapter XI: The Sage from China

Chapter XII: Return

Chapter XIII: Jenghiz Khan's Heritage

Part Two: The Mongol Empire

Chapter XIV: A Great Prime Minister

Chapter XV: The Mongols in Europe

Chapter XVI: Among the Tartars

Chapter XVII: The Conqueror's Grandsons

Chapter XVIII: A General Onslaught

Chapter XIX: Kublai Khan

Chapter XX: Marco Polo's Millions

Part Three: The Three Realms

Chapter XXI: End of the Empire

Chapter XXII: The Realm of the Ilkhans

Chapter XXIII: The Yuen Dynasty

Chapter XXIV: The Golden Horde

Chapter XXV: The Centre

Part Four: Tamerlanes

Chapter XXVI: The Land Between the Realms

Chapter XXVII: Knight-Errant

Chapter XXVIII: Lord of Transoxania

Chapter XXIX: War Against Toktamish

Chapter XXX: The Five Years' Campaign

Chapter XXXI: The Sexagenarian

Chapter XXXII: Dream of World-Dominion

Part Five: The Heritage

Chapter XXXIII: The Heirs

Chapter XXXIV: The Disinherited

Epilogue: To the Key of Asia

Chronological Table

Principal Persons Mentioned in the Book

Bibliography

Index
5.

Imagining the World: Mythical Belief versus Reality in Global Encounters ("Marco Polo: Paradise in the East" begins on p. 106)
by O. R. Dathorne. 241 pgs.

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This is a study of the manner in which certain mythical notions of the world become accepted as fact. Dathorne shows how particular European concepts such as El Dorado, the Fountain of Youth, a race of Amazons, and monster (including cannibal) images were first associated with the Orient. After the New World encounter they were repositioned to North and South America. The book examines the way in which Arabs and Africans are conscripted into the view of the world and takes an unusual, non-Eurocentric viewpoint of how Africans journeyed to the New World and Europe, participating in, what may be considered, an early stage of world exploration and "discovery." The study concludes by looking at European travel literature from the early journeys of St. Brendan, through the Viking voyages and up to Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville. In all these instances, the encounters seem to justify mythical belief. Dathorne's interest in the subject is both intellectual and passionate since, coming from Guyana, he was very much part of this malformed Weltschmerz.

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Contents

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Europe Invents a New World

Chapter 2: European Myth Exported

Chapter 3: Discovering West and East in Literature

Chapter 4: African Voyages: "Discovery" of Europe

Notes

Selected Bibliography

Index

About the Author
6.

The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia ("Marco Polo's Journey" begins on p. 304)
by Rene Grousset, Naomi Walford. 720 pgs.

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Foreword

Preface

Contents

Introduction: the Steppe and History

I: The High Plateaus of Asia Until the Thirteenth Century

1: Early History of the Steppes: Scythians and Huns

2: The Early Middle Ages: T'U-Chüeh, Uigur, and Khitan

3: The Turks and Islam to the Thirteenth Century

4: The Russian Steppe from the Sixth to the Thirteenth Century

II: The Jenghiz-Khanite Mongols

5: Jenghiz Khan

6: The Three Immediate Successors to Jenghiz Khan

8: Turkestan Under the House of Jagatai

9: Mongol Persia and the House of HulÄgu

10: The Khanate of Kipchak

11: Tamerlane

III: The Last Mongols

12: The Mongols of Russia

13: The Shaybanids

14: The Last Jagataites

15: The Last Empires of Mongolia from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century

Notes

Index
7.

The Rise and Splendour of the Chinese Empire (Chap. XXVII "Marco Polo")
by Rene Grousset. 336 pgs.

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Illustrations

Chapter I: Chinese Earth

Chapter II: The Expansion of a Race of Pioneers

Chapter III: Feudalism and Chivalry

Chapter IV: The Sages of Former Times

Chapter V: By Fire and Sword

Chapter VI: A Chinese Caesar

Chapter VII: A Period of Transition

Chapter VIII: Pax Sinica

Chapter IX: The Triumph of the Literati

Chapter X: The Silk Road

Chapter XI: The Revelation of Buddhism

Chapter XII: The Splendour and Decadence of Han

Chapter XIII: The Three Kingdoms

Chapter XIV: The Great Invasions

Chapter XV: The Art of the Wei Dynasty

Chapter XVI: Yang-Ti, Son of Heaven

Chapter XVII: T'Ai-Tsung the Great

Chapter XVIII: Dramas at the T'Ang Court

Chapter XIX: A Great Age

Chapter XX: A Social Crisis

Chapter XXI: The Sung Dynasty and the Problem of Reforms

Chapter XXII: A Dreamer on the Throne--The Emperor Hui-Tsung

Chapter XXIII: The Refinements of Life

Chapter XXIV: The Crystallization of Chinese Thought

Chapter XXV: The Conqueror of the World

Chapter XXVI: Kublai Khan

Chapter XXVII: Marco Polo

Chapter XXVIII: A National Restoration: the Ming Dynasty

Chapter XXIX: The Drama of 1644

Chapter XXX: The Great Manchu Emperors

Index
8.

Travel and Ethnology in the Renaissance: South India through European Eyes, 1250-1625 (Chap. 2 "Marco Polo's India and the Latin Christian Tradition")
by Joan-Pau Rubies. 443 pgs.

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This book is a major contribution to the study of the encounter between Europeans and non-Europeans in the early modern period and to a neglected aspect of the cultural transformation of Europe throughout the Renaissance. Focusing on European travelers in India and their analysis of Hindu society, politics and religion, it also offers a detailed and systematic study of the variety of travel narratives describing South India from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries. In addition, the book proposes a novel approach to the study of European attitudes toward non-Europeans.

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Past and Present Publications

Contents

Illustrations

Preface

Acknowledgements

A Note on Spelling and Vocabulary

1: In Search of India: the Empire of Vijayanagara Through European Eyes

2: Marco Polo's India and the Latin Christian Tradition

3: Establishing Lay Science: the Merchant and the Humanist

4: Ludovico De Varthema: the Curious Traveller at the Time of Vasco Da Gama and Columbus

5: The Portuguese and Vijayanagara: Politics, Religion and Classification

6: The Practice of Ethnography: Indian Customs and Castes

7: The Social and Political Order: Vijayanagara Decoded

8: The Historical Dimension: from Native Traditions to European Orientalism

9: The Missionary Discovery of South Indian Religion: Opening the Doors of Idolatry

10: From Humanism to Scepticism: the Independent Traveller in the Seventeenth Century

Conclusion: Before Orientalism

Appendix

Bibliography

Index

Past and Present Publications
9.

The Rise of the Medieval World, 500-1300: A Biographical Dictionary ("Polo, Marco (c. 1254-1324)" begins on p. 350)
by Jana K. Schulman. 500 pgs.

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Beginning in 500 with the fusion of classical, Christian, and Germanic cultures and ending in 1300 with a Europe united by a desire for growth, knowledge, and change, this volume provides basic information on the significant cultural figures of the Middle Ages. It includes over 400 people whose contributions in literature, religion, philosophy, education, or politics influenced the development and culture of the Medieval world. While focusing on Western European figures, the book does not neglect those from Byzantium, Baghdad, and the Arab world who also contributed to the politics, religion, and culture of Western Europe.

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Contents

Introduction

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

R

S

T

U

V

W

Bibliography

Name Index

General Index
10.

A Short History of China (1928) (Discussion of Marco Polo begins on p. 172)
by Edward Thomas Williams. 670 pgs.

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Title Page

Editorial Preface

Preface

Contents

Illustrations

Chapter I an Introduction

Chapter II Laying the Foundations

Chapter III the Classical Age

Chapter IV Period of Reconstruction

Chapter V a Period of Travail

Chapter VI the Golden Age

Chapter VII Culture Versus Barbarism

Chapter VIII the Dawn of the Modern Era Ming Dynasty, A.D. 1368-1644

Chapter IX an Era of Progress

Chapter X Arrogance and Aggression

Chapter XI: A Struggle of Civilizations Manchu Dynasty, Third Period, 1850-1860

Chapter XII the Old Order Changes Manchu Dynasty, Fourth Period, 1860-1875

Chapter XIII: Decadence Manchu Dynasty, Fifth Period, 1876-1896

Chapter XIV Aggression and Reprisal

Chapter XV Neighbors and Special Interests

Chapter XVI Belated Repentance Last Manchu Period, 1902-1912 Republican Period, 1912-1926

Chapter XVII Revolution

Chapter XVIII the Administration of Yuan Shih-K'Ai Republican Period, 1913-1916

Chapter XIX China in the World War

Chapter XX China at the Peace Conference Republican Period, 1918-1920

Chapter XXI China at the Washington Conference and Afterward

Chapter XXII Nationalism and Internationalism

Appendix I

Appendix II

Index
11.

Conquest by Man (Discussion of Marco Polo begins on p. 380)
by Paul Herrmann, Michael Bullock.

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Contents

Illustrations in the Text

Maps

Halftone Plates

Foreword

Acknowledgments

Part One: Early Travel

Part Two: The Royal Metal

Part Three: Punt, Land of God, and The 'Isles of the Blessed'

Part Four: Greek Legends And What Lies Behind Them

Part Five: From Rome to the Far East And America

Part Six: America -- Hvitramanna Land The Land of the Palefaces

Part Seven: The Rune Stone of Kensington And the Mystery of The Greenland Vikings

Part Eight: Wineland

Part Nine: From Jotunheimar and Svalbard To Bagdad and Canton

Part Ten: The Crusades, Prester John And The Great Khan

Part Eleven: The Portuguese and Africa

Bibliography

Index
12.

The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus ("Marco Polo" begins on p. 693 and "The Work of Marco Polo" begins on p. 698)
by Washington Irving. 735 pgs.

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Contents

Preface

Book I

Chapter I: Birth, Parentage, and Early Life of Columbus

Chapter II: Early Voyages of Columbus

Chapter III: Progress of Discovery under Prince Henry of Portugal

Chapter IV: Residence of Columbus at Lisbon—ideas concerning Islands in the Ocean

Chapter V: Grounds on Which Columbus Founded His Belief of the Existence of Undiscovered Lands in the West

Chapter VI: Correspondence of Columbus with Paulo Toscanelli—events in Portugal Relative to Discoveries—proposition of Columbus to the Portuguese Court—departure from Portugal

Book II

Chapter I: Proceedings of Columbus after Leaving Portugal—his Applications in Spain—characters of Ferdinand and Isabella

Chapter II: Columus at the Court of Spain

Chapter III: Colobous before the Council at Salamanca

Chapter IV: Further Applications at the Court of Castile—columbus Follows the Court in Its Campaigns

Chapter V: Columbus at the Convent of la Rabida

Chapter VI: Application to the Court at the Time of the Surrende of Granada

Chapter VII: Arrangement with the Spanish Sovereigns—preparations for the Expedition at the Port of Palos

Chapter VIII: Columbus at the Port of Palos—preparations for the Voyage of Discovery

Book III

Chapter II: Columus at the Court of Spain.

Chapter II: Continuation of the Voyage—first Notice of the Variation of the Needle

Chapter III: Continuation of the Voyage—various Terrors of the Seamen

Chapter IV: Continuation of the Voyage—discovery of Land

Chapter I: Departure of Columbus on His First Voyage.

Chapter II: Continuation of the Voyage—first Notice of the Variation of the Needle

Chapter II: Cruise among the Bahama Islands

Chapter III: Discovery and Coasting of Cuba

Chapter IV: Further Coasting of Cuba

Chapter V: Search after the Supposed Island of Babeque—desertion of the Pinta

Chapter VI: Discovery of Hispaniola

Chapter VII: Coasting of Hispaniola

Chapter VIII: Shipw.Reck

Chapter IX: Transactions with the Natives

Chapter X: Building of the Fortress of la Navidad

Chapter XI: Regulation of the Fortress of la Navidad—departure of Columbus for Spain

Book IV

Chapter I: First Landing of Columbus in the New World

Chapter II: Return Voyage—violent Storms—arrival at the Azores

Chapter III: Transactions at the Island of St. Mary's

Chapter IV: Arrival at Portugal—visit to the Court

Chapter V: Reception of Columbus at Palos

Chapter VI: Reception of Columbus by the Spanish Court at Barcelona

Chapter VII: Sojourn of Columbus at Barcelona—attentions Paid Him by the Sovereigns and Courtiers

Chapter VIII: Papal Bull of Partition—preparations for a Second Voyage of Columbus

Chapter IX: Diplomatic Negotiations between the Courts of Spain and Portugal with Respect to the New Discoveries

Chapter X: Further Preparations for the Second Voyage—character of Alonso de Ojeda—difference of Columbus with Soria and Fonseca

Book V

Chapter II: Cruise among the Bahama Islands

Chapter II: Transactions at the Island of Guadaloupe

Chapter III: Cruise among the Caribbee Islands

Chapter IV: Arrival at the Harbor of la Navidad—disaster of the Fortress

Chapter V: Transactions with the Natives—suspicious Conduct of Guacanagari

Chapter VI: Founding of the City of Isabella—maladies of the Spaniards

Chapter VII: Expedition of Alonso de Ojeda to Explore the Interior of the Island—dispatch of the Ships to Spain

Chapter VIII: Discontents at Isabella—mutiny of Bernal Diaz de Pisa

Chapter IX: Expedition of Columbus to the Mountains of Cibao

Chapter X: Excursion of Juan de Luxan among the Mountains—customs and Characteristics of the Natives—columbus Returns to Isabella

Chapter XI: Arrival of Columbus at Isabella—sickness of the Colony

Chapter XII: Distribution of the Spanish Forces in the Interiorpreparations for a Voyage to Cuba

Chapter I: Coasting Toward the Eastern End of Hispaniola—meeting with Pinzon—affair with the Natives at the Gulf of Samana.

Chapter II: Return Voyage—violent Storms—arrival at the Azores

Chapter II: Discovery of Jamaica

Chapter III: Return to Cuba—navigation among the Islands Called the Queen's Gardens

Chapter IV: Coasting of the Southern Side of Cuba

Chapter V: Return of Calumbus along the Southern Coast of Cuba

Chapter VI: Coasting Voyage along the South Side of Jamaica

Chapter VII: Voyage along the South Side of Hispaniola, and Return to Isabella

Chapter I: Departure of Columbus on His Second Voyage—discovery of the Caribbee Islands

Book VI

Chapter II: Misconduct of Don Pedro Margarite, and His Departure from the Island

Chapter III: Troubles with the Natives—alonzo de Ojeda Besieged by Caonabo

Chapter IV: Measures of Columws to Restore the Quiet of Thr Island—expedition of Ojeda to Surprise Caonabo

Chapter V: Arrival of Antonio de Torres with Four Ships from Spain-His Return with Indian Slaves

Chapter VI: Expedition of Comumbus against the Indians of the Vega—battle

Chapter VII: Subjugation of the Natives—imposition of Tribute

Chapter VIII: Intrjgues against Columbus in the Court of Spain—aguado Sent to Investigate the Affairs of Hispaniola

Chapter IX: Aprival of Aguado at Isabella—his Arrogant Conduct—tempest in the Harbor

Chapter X: Discovery of the Mines of Hayna

Book VII

Chapter II: Transactions at the Island of Guadaloupe.

Chapter II: Decline of the Popularity of Columbus in Spain—his Reception by the Sovereigns at Burgos—he Proposes a Third Voyage

Chapter III: Preparations for a Third Voyage—disappointments and Delays

Chapter I: Voyage to the East End of Cuba.

Chapter II: Discovery of Jamaica

Chapter II: Voyage through the Gulf of Paria

Chapter III: Continuation of the Voyage through the Gulf of Paria—return to Hispaniola

Chapter IV: Speculations of Columbus concerning the Coast of Paria

Chapter I: Arrival of the Admiral at Isabella—(character of Bartholomew Columbus

Book VIII

Chapter II: Establishment of a Chain of Military Posts—insurreotion of Guarionex, the Cacique of the Vega

Chapter III: The Adelantado Repairs to Xaragua to Receiye Tribute

Chapter IV: Conspiracy of Boldan

Chapter V: The Adelantado Repairs to the Vega in Belief of Fort Conception—his Interview with Roman

Chapter VI: Second Insurrection of Guarionex, and His Flight to the Mountains of Ciguay

Chapter VII: Campaign of the Adelantado in the Mountains of Ciguay

Book IX

Chapter II: Misconduct of Don Pedro Margarite, and His Departure from the Island.

Chapter II: Negotiation of the Admiral with the Rebels—departure of Ships for Spain

Chapter III: Negotiations and Armlngements with the Rebels

Chapter IV: Grants Made to Roman and His Followers—departure of Several of the Rebels for Spain

Chapter V: Arrival of Ojeda with a Squadron at the Western Part of the Island—roldan Sent to Meet Him

Chapter VI: ManŒuvres of Roman and Ojeda

Chapter VII: Conspiracy of Guevara and Moxica

Chapter I: Return of Columbus to Spain with Aguado.

Chapter II: Decline of the Popularity of Columbus in Spain—his Reception by the Sovereigns at Burgos—he Proposes a Third Voyage

Chapter II: Arrival of Bobadeilla at San Domingo—his Violent Assumption of the Command

Chapter III: Columbus Summoned to Appear before Bobadilla

Chapter IV: Columbus and His Brothers Arrested and Sent to Spain in Chains

Book X

Chapter I: Departure of Columbus from Spain on His Third Voyage—discovery of Trinidad

Chapter II: Contemporary Voyages of Discovery

Chapter III: Nicholas de Ovando Appointed to Supersede Bobadilla

Chapter IV: Proposition of Columbus Relative to the Recovery of the Holy Sepulchre

Chapter V: Preparations of Columbus for a Fourth Voyage of Discovery

Chapter II: Voyage Through the Gulf of Paria.

Book XI

Chapter II: Voyage along the Coast of Honduras

Chapter III: Voyage along the Mosquito Coast, and Transactions at Cariari

Chapter IV: Voyage along Costa Rica—speculations concerning the Isthmus at Veragua

Chapter V: Discovery of Puerto Bello and El Retrete—columbus Abandons the Search after Tub Strait

Chapter VI: Return to Veragua—the Adelantado Explores the Country

Chapter VII: Commencement of a Settlement on the River Belen—conspiracy of the Natives—expedition of the Adelantado to Surprise Quibian

Chapter VIII: Disasters of the Settlement

Chapter IX: Distress the Admiral on Board of His Ship—ultimate Relief of the Settlement

Chapter X: Departure from the Coast of Veragua—arrival at Jamaica—stranding of the Ships

Chapter II: Establishment of a Chain of Military Posts—insurreotion of Guarionex, the Cacique of the Vega

Chapter I: Administration of the Adelantado—expedition to the Province of Xaragua.

Chapter II: Mutiny of Porras

Chapter III: Scarcity of Provisions—stratagem of Columbus to Obtain Supplies from the Natives

Chapter IV: Mission of Diego de Escobar to the Admiral

Chapter V: Voyage of Diego Mendez and Bartholomew Fiesco in a Canoe to Hispaniola

Chapter VI: Overtures of Columbus to the Mutineers—battle of the Adelantado with Porras and His Followers

Chapter I: Confusion in the Island—proceedings of the Rebels at Xaragua

Book XII

Chapter II: Massacre at Xaragua—fate of Anacaona

Chapter III: War with the Natives of Higuey

Chapter IV: Close of the War with Higuey—fate of Cotabanama

Chapter II: Negotiation of the Admiral with the Rebels—departure of Ships to Spain.

Book XIII

Chapter II: Illness of Columbus at Seville—application to the Crown for a Restitution of His Honors—death of Isabella

Chapter III: Columbus Arrives at Court—fruitless Application to the King for Redress

Chapter IV: Death of Columbus

Chapter V: Observations on the Character of Columbus

Appendix
13.

The Lure of Xanadu: Ever since Marco Polo First Told the Story of His Visit to the Court of Kublai Khan in the 13th Century, the Silk Road Has Inspired Generations of Writers and Storytellers, in Geographical
by Barnaby Rogerson. 5 pgs.

Magazine Article
14.

Late, Great Geographers: Marco Polo (1254-1324), in Geographical
by Geographical. 2 pgs.

Magazine Article

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