Portugal - pôrˈchəgəl, officially Portuguese Republic, republic (1995 est. pop. 10,562,000), 35,553 sq mi (92,082 sq km), SW Europe, on the western side of the Iberian Peninsula and including the
Madeira Islands and the
Azores in the Atlantic Ocean. Portugal is bordered by Spain on the east and north and by the Atlantic Ocean on the west and south. The capital and by far the largest city is
Lisbon.
Land and People The country is crossed by rivers rising in Spain and flowing to the Atlantic; among them are the Douro, the Tagus, the Sado, and the Guadiana. The river valleys support agriculture, and vineyards are maintained in the Douro and Tagus valleys. On the lower hillslopes there are olive groves; grains are grown and livestock are raised on the flatter uplands as well as on the plains near the coast. There are great variations in terrain and climate among the historic provinces.
Trás-os-Montes in the extreme northeast has a rigorous mountain climate, as have parts of Entre-Minho-e-Douro (officially Douro).
Beira has the highest mountains of the country, the scenic Serra de Estrela, dotted with resorts.
Estremadura, in W Portugal, has broad, alluvial plains, rising to cool and rocky uplands; along the Atlantic coast is a celebrated resort region, reaching to the town of Estoril, near Lisbon. Most of
Alentejo has a Mediterranean climate; although much of its soil is poor, together with Estremadura it is the granary of Portugal. The southernmost of the old provinces,
Algarve, resembles the northern shores of Africa; mountains curve across the north of the province down to Cape St. Vincent, the southwestern tip of Europe; citrus and almond groves and off-season vegetables thrive in the mild climate. In addition to the capital, other notable cities are
Oporto,
Coimbra,
Setúbal,
Braga,
Évora, and
Faro. The republic, including the island groups, is divided into 18 administrative districts, although the names of the six historic provinces are still used. Under a 1987 agreement, Portugal's last overseas territory,
Macao, reverted to Chinese sovereignty at the end of 1999. The majority of the Portuguese people are Roman Catholic. Portugal has several universities, including ones at Coimbra, Oporto, and Lisbon. Economy Portuguese agricultural techniques are less mechanized than those of most of W Europe, and less than 10% of the gross national product can be attributed to agricultural production. Wheat, corn, potatoes, tomatoes, grapes, sugar beets, and olives are the main crops; sheep, cattle, and goats are raised. The country's fishing fleets bring in vital cargoes of sardines and tuna; fishing ports extend all the way from Cape St. Vincent in the south to the mouth of the Minho River on the N Spanish border. In addition to light industries such as food processing and textile, chemical, and paper and pulp manufacturing, Portugal has a limited variety of heavy industries. Low-grade coal, copper pyrites, iron ore, tungsten, and other minerals are mined. Most of the mines are in the northern mountains and in Beira. Portugal's forests provide a major portion of the world's supply of cork. The country has enjoyed considerable economic progress since it became a member of the European Community (now the European Union) in 1986. Machinery and motor vehicles, textile fibers, petroleum, and cereals are major imports, and cotton textiles and wine as well as cork, other wood products, and fruit are major exports. European Union countries are the main trading partners. Government Portugal is governed under the constitution of 1976, which established a parliamentary republic. The constitution was amended in 1982, 1989, 1992, and 1997. The president, who is the chief of state, is elected by universal suffrage to a five-year term. Appointed by the president and supported by a majority of the assembly of the republic, the premier functions as the head of government, presiding over the council of ministers (the cabinet). In addition, a council of state acts as a consultative body to the president and consists of representatives from the political parties, a military defense board, and a constitutional tribunal. The government's legislative body consists of the 230-seat assembly of the republic, whose members are elected to four-year terms under a system of proportional representation. History Early History There is little direct filiation between the Portuguese of today and the early tribes who inhabited this region, although the Portuguese long considered themselves descendants of the Lusitanians, a Celtic people who came to the area after 1,000 b.c. The Lusitanians had their stronghold in the Serra da Estrela. Under
Viriatus (2d cent. b.c.) and under
Sertorius (1st cent. b.c.), they stoutly resisted the Romans (see
Lusitania). Other tribes, such as the Conii in Algarve, submitted more readily. Julius Caesar and Augustus completed the Roman conquest of the area, and the province of Lusitania thrived. Roman ways were adopted, and it is from Latin that the Portuguese language is derived. At the beginning of the 5th cent. a.d., the whole Iberian Peninsula was overrun by Germanic invaders; the
Visigoths eventually established their rule, but in the north the Suevi established a kingdom that endured until late in the 6th cent., when they were absorbed by the Visigoths. Present-day Algarve was part of the Byzantine Empire during the 6th and 7th cent. In 711 the Visigoths were defeated by the
Moors, who conquered the whole peninsula except for Asturias and the Basque country. Muslim culture and science had a great impact, especially in the south. Religious toleration was practiced, but a large minority converted to Islam. Growth of the State It was during the long period of the Christian reconquest that the Portuguese nation was created. The kings of Asturias drove the Moors out of Galicia in the 8th cent. Ferdinand I of Castile entered Beira and took the fortress of Viseu and the city of Coimbra in 1064. Alfonso VI of Castile obtained French aid in his wars against the Moors.
Henry of Burgundy married an illegitimate daughter of Alfonso VI and became (1095?) count of Coimbra and later count of Portucalense. Henry's son Alfonso Henriques, wrested power (1128) from his mother and maintained the independence of his lands. After a victory over the Moors in 1139, he began to style himself
Alfonso I, king of Portugal. Spain recognized Portugal's independence in 1143 and the Pope did so in 1179. Alfonso's long reign (1128–85) was an important factor in Portugal's attainment of independence. Alfonso's successors were faced with the tasks of recapturing Alentejo and Algarve from the Moors and of rebuilding the areas devastated by the long wars. There was conflict with other Portuguese claimants and between the kings and powerful nobles, and there was continual strife between the crown and the church over land and power. Until the late 13th cent. the church was victorious, winning inviolability for ecclesiastic law as well as exemption from general taxation.
Sancho I (1185–1211) captured the Moorish capital of Silves but could not hold it. Alfonso II (1211–23) summoned the first Cortes (council to advise the king). After Sancho II (1223–48) was deposed,
Alfonso III (1248–79) took (1249) Algarve and thus consolidated Portugal. In Alfonso's reign the towns gained representation in the Cortes. Years of Glory The reconquest and resettlement aided local liberties, since forais (charters) guaranteeing municipal rights were granted in order to encourage settlement. As former serfs became settlers, serfdom declined (13th cent.), but in practice many servile obligations remained. Alfonso's son
Diniz (1279–1325) attempted to improve land conditions. He also established a brilliant court and founded the university that became the Univ. of Coimbra. The reign of his son,
Alfonso IV, is remembered chiefly because of the tragic romance of Inés de
Castro, the mistress of Alfonso's son, Peter (later
Peter I; 1357–67); to avenge her fate, Peter, on his succession, had two of her murderers executed.
Ferdinand I (1367–83) indulged in long Castilian wars. Ferdinand's heiress was married to a Castilian prince, John I of Castile; after the death of Ferdinand, John claimed the throne. The Portuguese, largely due to the efforts of Nun'Álvares
Pereira, defeated the Castilians in the battle of Aljubarrota (1385) and established
John I, a bastard son of Peter, as king. At this time began the long alliance of Portugal with England. John founded the Aviz dynasty and his reign (1385–1433) commenced the most glorious period of Portuguese history. Portugal entered an era of colonial and maritime expansion. The war against the Moors was extended to Africa, and
Ceuta was taken. Under the aegis of Prince
Henry the Navigator, Portuguese ships sailed out along the coast of Africa. The Madeira Islands and the Azores were colonized.
Duarte (1433–38) failed to take Tangier, but his son
Alfonso V (1438–81) succeeded (1471) in doing so. Alfonso's attempt to gain the Castilian throne ended in defeat. Under his son
John II (1481–95) voyages of exploration were resumed. Bartholomew Diaz rounded (1488) the Cape of Good Hope. By the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), Spain and Portugal divided the non-Christian world between them. During the glittering reign of
Manuel I (1495–1521), Vasco da Gama sailed (1497–98) to India, Pedro Alvarez Cabral claimed (1500) Brazil, and Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa (1510), Melaka (1511), and Hormoz (1515). The Portuguese Empire extended across the world, to Asia, Africa, and America. In 1497, as a precondition to his marriage with Ferdinand and Isabella's daughter, Manuel ordered the Jewish population to convert to Christianity or leave the country. Manuel's reign and that of |
