Read complete books and articles on: The Spanish-American War

Spanish-American War - 1898, brief conflict between Spain and the United States arising out of Spanish policies in Cuba. It was, to a large degree, brought about by the efforts of U.S. expansionists.

Causes of the War

Demands by Cuban patriots for independence from Spanish rule made U.S. intervention in Cuba a paramount issue in the relations between the United States and Spain from the 1870s to

Causes of the War

Demands by Cuban patriots for independence from Spanish rule made U.S. intervention in Cuba a paramount issue in the relations between the United States and Spain from the 1870s to 1898. Sympathy for the Cuban insurgents ran high in America, especially after the savage Ten Years War (1868–78) and the unsuccessful revolt of 1895. After efforts to quell guerrilla activity had failed, the Spanish military commander, Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau, instituted the reconcentrado, or concentration camp, system in 1896; Cuba's rural population was forcibly confined to centrally located garrison towns, where thousands died from disease, starvation, and exposure.

Weyler's actions brought the rebels many new American sympathizers. These prorebel feelings were inflamed by the U.S. "yellow press," especially W. R. Hearst's New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's New York World, which distorted and slanted the news from Cuba. The U.S. government was also moved by the heavy losses of American investment in Cuba caused by the guerrilla warfare, an appreciation of the strategic importance of the island to Central America and a projected isthmian canal there, and a growing sense of U.S. power in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. There was an unspoken threat of intervention. This grew sharper after the insurgents, refusing a Spanish offer of partial autonomy, determined to fight for full freedom.

Although the majority of Americans, including President McKinley, wished to avert war and hoped to settle the Cuban question by peaceful means, a series of incidents early in 1898 intensified U.S. feelings against Spain. The first of these was the publication by Hearst of a stolen letter (the de Lôme letter) that had been written by the Spanish minister at Washington, in which that incautious diplomat expressed contempt for McKinley. This was followed by the sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana harbor on Feb. 15, 1898, with a loss of 260 men. Although Spanish complicity was not proved, U.S. public opinion was aroused and war sentiment rose. The cause of the advocates of war was given further impetus as a result of eyewitness reports by members of the U.S. Congress on the effect of the reconcentrado policy in Cuba.

A Short and One-sided War

In late March, McKinley proposed to Spain an armistice in Cuba, but under pressure from expansionists both in and out of Congress, he was won to the war cause. Although on Apr. 10, 1898, McKinley was informed that the queen of Spain had ordered hostilities suspended, he barely referred to that fact when he addressed Congress on Apr. 11. He asked for authority to intervene in Cuba. Congress responded by passing resolutions to demand Spanish withdrawal from Cuba and set terms for U.S. intervention; these included the Teller Amendment, which pledged that the United States would withdraw from the island when independence was assured. On Apr. 22, Congress authorized the enlistment of volunteer troops, and a U.S. blockade of Spanish ports was instituted. On Apr. 24, Spain declared war on the United States. The next day Congress retorted by declaring war on Spain, retroactive to Apr. 21.

The warfare that commenced was short and very one-sided. The first dramatic incident occurred on the other side of the world from Cuba. On May 1 a U.S. squadron under George Dewey sailed into the harbor of Manila, Philippine Islands, and in a few hours thoroughly defeated the Spanish fleet there. Dewey's name was greeted across the United States with almost hysterical praise. On May 19, Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete took the Spanish fleet into the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. Commodore W. S. Schley established (May 28) a blockade of the harbor, in which Rear Admiral W. I. Sampson joined, taking command of the blockading fleet on June 1. When the Spanish fleet attempted to escape on July 3, it was destroyed.

Meanwhile 17,000 more or less trained, poorly equipped but enthusiastic U.S. troops under W. R. Shafter landed and undertook a campaign to capture Santiago. The Spanish forces were weak, but there was some heavy fighting (July 1) at El Caney and San Juan Hill, where the Rough Riders, under Leonard Wood and Theodore Roosevelt, won their popular reputation. On July 17, Santiago surrendered. The war was, in effect, over. Troops sent under Nelson A. Miles to Puerto Rico were occupying that island when they received word that an armistice had been signed on Aug. 12. Dewey and Wesley Merritt led a successful land and sea assault and occupation of Manila on Aug. 13, after the armistice had been signed.

Results

Peace was arranged by the Treaty of Paris signed Dec. 10, 1898 (ratified by the U.S. Senate, Feb. 6, 1899). The Spanish Empire was practically dissolved. Cuba was freed, but under U.S. tutelage by terms of the Platt Amendment (see under Platt, Orville), with Spain assuming the Cuban debt. Puerto Rico and Guam were ceded to the United States as indemnity, and the Philippines were surrendered to the United States for a payment of $20 million. The United States emerged from the war with new international power. In both Latin America and East Asia it had established an imperial foothold. The war tied the United States more closely to the course of events in those areas.

Bibliography

See A. T. Mahan, Lessons of the War with Spain (1900, repr. 1970); F. E. Chadwick, Relations of the United States and Spain: Diplomacy (1909, repr. 1968) and Relations of the United States and Spain: The Spanish-American War (1911, repr. 1968); W. Millis, The Martial Spirit (1931); J. W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1898 (1936, repr. 1959); F. B. Freidel, The Splendid Little War (1958); H. W. Morgan, America's Road to Empire (1965); I. Musicant, Empire by Default (1998); W. Zimmermann, First Great Triumph (2002).

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12 of the Best Books and Articles on: The Spanish-American War

as selected by Questia librarians

1.

Historical Dictionary of the Spanish American War » Read Now
by Donald H. Dyal, Brian B. Carpenter, Mark A. Thomas. 380 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library

Foreshadowing the twentieth-century experience, the Spanish American War was America's first modern foreign war. Catapulting the United States into an international world power, it had lasting international implications. Besides America's acquisition of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Hawaii, and...
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Foreshadowing the twentieth-century experience, the Spanish American War was America's first modern foreign war. Catapulting the United States into an international world power, it had lasting international implications. Besides America's acquisition of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Hawaii, and Guam, the war led the United States to take to the international stage, confronting Germany and Japan, and creating a diplomatic bridge between Great Britain and the United States. For Spain the 1898-1899 conflict was the death knell of empire. This volume provides easily accessible information on the naval and army operations, Spanish operations, and the political background to the military events, with an emphasis on future foreign affairs.
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2.

The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography » Read Now
by Louis A. Perez. 174 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library

In this work, Louis A. Perez examines the meaning of the Cuban war for independence of 1898, as represented in 100 years of American historical writing.
3.

The Spanish-American War at Sea: Naval Action in the Atlantic » Read Now
by A. B. Feuer. 232 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library

By piecing together diaries, letters, scrapbooks, and rare privately printed memoirs, the author has created a story which tells how America's ragtag navy--composed mainly of converted yachts, steamers and tugboats--was able to fight and win against the more powerful Spanish gunboats. The naval...
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By piecing together diaries, letters, scrapbooks, and rare privately printed memoirs, the author has created a story which tells how America's ragtag navy--composed mainly of converted yachts, steamers and tugboats--was able to fight and win against the more powerful Spanish gunboats. The naval battles fought in places like Santiago, Cardenas, Cienfuegos, Manzanillo, Port Nipe, Guantanamo, San Juan, Guanica, and Ponce come alive in this book. The stories of the brave little ships that fought these battles--with names like the Gloucester and the Yosemite--at times against overwhelming odds, demonstrates the excellent training of the men who manned their guns under leadership of daring officers. This book fills in many of the missing pieces in the history of the Spanish-American War.
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4.

McKinley and the Spanish-American War, in Presidential Studies Quarterly » Read Now
by John L. Offner. 12 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library
5.

An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895-1898 » Read Now
by John L. Offner. 306 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library
6.

The Santiago Campaign of 1898: A Soldier's View of the Spanish-American War » Read Now
by A. B. Feuer. 147 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library

This story is an account of the Santiago, Cuba, land campaign of the Spanish-American War, as conducted by General William R. Shafter's Fifth Army Corps. The narrative is based on firsthand information gathered from handwritten diaries, memoirs, and regimental and company histories of the men who...
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This story is an account of the Santiago, Cuba, land campaign of the Spanish-American War, as conducted by General William R. Shafter's Fifth Army Corps. The narrative is based on firsthand information gathered from handwritten diaries, memoirs, and regimental and company histories of the men who participated in the campaign. These chronicles of frontline action paint an entirely different picture of what has been called "The Splendid Little War." The opponent, far from being the cowardly Spanish soldier of myth, is revealed to be a courageous, resourceful foe. Furthermore, the attack on the outer defenses of Santiago was totally mismanaged by William Shafter, the American General in command, and his incompetent staff. Only the U.S. Navy's victory over the Spanish squadron on July 3, 1898, rescued the army from disaster.
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7.

Diary of a Dirty Little War: The Spanish-American War of 1898 » Read Now
by Harvey Rosenfeld. 210 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library

The Spanish-American War has been called a "splendid" little war, but, as Rosenfeld contends, it was a dirty little war as well. This colorful account, presented in diary format from the days preceding the declaration of war to the signing of the peace treaty with Spain, reveals how every aspect of...
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The Spanish-American War has been called a "splendid" little war, but, as Rosenfeld contends, it was a dirty little war as well. This colorful account, presented in diary format from the days preceding the declaration of war to the signing of the peace treaty with Spain, reveals how every aspect of American life was ultimately touched by the war. From the beginning, a unique spirit of patriotism pervaded the nation as volunteers flooded local enlistment centers. But it soon was evident that the United States was ill prepared to deal with the demands of training new troops, transporting them to staging areas, and protecting them against disease. Rosenfeld provides readers with the local color of the home front, including the experiences of the Jewish and black communities in the war, and strikes a balance between scholarly and popular writing.
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8.

The Little War of Private Post: The Spanish-American War Seen up Close » Read Now
by Charles Johnson Post. 344 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library

Charles Johnson Post (1873-1956) received not one but two handmade red flannel bellybands for protection against tropical fevers when he enlisted as a private in 1898 with the 71st New York Infantry. He was paid a monthly wage of $13.00, with an additional $1.30 combat pay per month. Setting off for...
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Charles Johnson Post (1873-1956) received not one but two handmade red flannel bellybands for protection against tropical fevers when he enlisted as a private in 1898 with the 71st New York Infantry. He was paid a monthly wage of $13.00, with an additional $1.30 combat pay per month. Setting off for what he later termed "the little wars that are the mere trivia of history", he came back to write "a mild chronicle of many little men who were painting on a big canvas, and of their little epic routines of life, with a common death at their elbow. It is only the little, but keen, tribulations that made the epic routine of an old-fashioned war".
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9.

Democracy at the Point of Bayonets (Chap. 3 "The Spanish-American War and the Foundations of the Pro-Democratic Compromise") » Read Now
by Mark Peceny. 254 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library

No country has worked harder to coerce others to adopt liberal institutions than the United States. This book examines the promotion of democracy during U.S. military interventions in the twentieth century, showing it to be one of the central ways in which the United States attempts to reconcile the...
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No country has worked harder to coerce others to adopt liberal institutions than the United States. This book examines the promotion of democracy during U.S. military interventions in the twentieth century, showing it to be one of the central ways in which the United States attempts to reconcile the potential contradictions involved in being a liberal great power. Examining interventions from the Spanish-American War through recent actions in Bosnia, Mark Peceny shows how the United States has encouraged the institution of free elections & other liberal reforms-often at the point of bayonets. Peceny applies statistical analysis to ninety-three cases of intervention & presents six case studies: Cuba & the Philippines after the Spanish-American War, Vietnam during the Kennedy administration, El Salvador during Reagan's first term, & Clinton's interventions in Haiti & Bosnia. By forging a synthesis of realist & domestic liberal approaches, Peceny illuminates the roles that both security concerns & liberal values play in the formulation & implementation of foreign policy. He shows how presidents often initially choose proliberalization policies to serve U.S. security interests & how Congress exerts pressure when presidents fail to take the initiative. Under these circumstances, he shows, presidents use the promotion of democracy to build domestic political consensus & to legitimize interventions. Although the United States has failed to promote democracy in most interventions, Peceny demonstrates that it has often had a profound & positive impact on the democratization of target states. His study offers new insight into the relationship between American power, the promotion of democracy, & prospects for the liberal peace in the decades to come.
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10.

The American Past: Conflicting Interpretations of the Great Issues (Chap. VII "Spanish-American War: Aspect of the 'Large Policy' or Victory for the Cuban Junta?") » Read Now
by Sidney Fine, Gerald S. Brown. 554 pgs.

Collections: Philosophy, History, Entire Library

...VII. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR: ASPECT OF THE "LARGE POL...removed until the time of the Spanish- American War. In view of the foregoing...in the South only after the War...
11.

Events That Changed America in the Nineteenth Century (Chap. 10 "Spanish American War, 1898-1901") » Read Now
by John E. Findling, Frank W. Thackeray. 217 pgs.

Collections: History, Entire Library

In the year 1800 the United States was a fledgling nation. By the time the century ended we had expanded westward exponentially, stamped our imprint as the major power in the Western hemisphere, revolutionized our economy from agriculture to manufacturing, and suffered the schism of a civil war that...
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In the year 1800 the United States was a fledgling nation. By the time the century ended we had expanded westward exponentially, stamped our imprint as the major power in the Western hemisphere, revolutionized our economy from agriculture to manufacturing, and suffered the schism of a civil war that nearly brought the nation as conceived by our forefathers to an end. To help students better understand the momentous changes of that century, this unique resource offers detailed description and expert analysis of the most important events in nineteenth-century America: the Louisiana Purchase, the War of 1812, the Monroe Doctrine, Jacksonian Democracy, Abolition, the War with Mexico, the Civil War, the Industrial Revolution, the Closing of the Frontier, and the Spanish-American War. Each of these events is dealt with in a separate chapter. The books unique format features an introductory essay that presents the facts, followed by an interpretive essay that places the event in a broader context and promotes student analysis. The introductory essay provides factual material in a clear, concise, chronological manner that makes complex history understandable; the interpretive essay, written by a recognized authority in the field in a style designed to appeal to a general readership, assesses the event in terms of its political, economic, sociocultural, and international/diplomatic significance.
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12.

Women Nurses in the Spanish-American War, in Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military » Read Now
by Mercedes H. Graf. 35 pgs.

Collections: Entire Library