Read complete books and articles on: John Locke

Locke, John - lŏk, 1632–1704, English philosopher, founder of British empiricism. Locke summed up the Enlightenment in his belief in the middle class and its right to freedom of conscience and right to property, in his faith in science, and in his confidence in the goodness of humanity. His influence upon philosophy and political theory has been incalculable.

Life and Work

Educated

Life and Work

Educated at Christ Church College, Oxford, he became (1660) a lecturer there in Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy. He studied medicine, and his acquaintance with scientific practice had a strong influence upon his philosophical thought and method. In 1666, Locke met Anthony Ashley Cooper, the future 1st earl of Shaftesbury, and soon became his friend, physician, and adviser. After 1667, Locke had minor diplomatic and civil posts, most of them through Shaftesbury. In 1675, after Shaftesbury had lost his offices, Locke left England for France, where he met French leaders in science and philosophy.

Returning to England in 1679, he soon retired to Oxford, where he stayed quietly until, suspected of radicalism by the government, he went to Holland and remained there several years (1683–89). In Holland he completed the famous Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), which was published in complete form after his return to England at the accession of William and Mary to the English throne. In the same year he published his Two Treatises on Civil Government; part of this work justifies the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but much of it was written earlier. His fame increased, and he became known in England and on the Continent as the leading philosopher of freedom.

Philosophy

In the Essay Concerning Human Understanding Locke examines the nature of the human mind and the process by which it knows the world. Repudiating the traditional doctrine of innate ideas, Locke believed that the mind is born blank, a tabula rasa upon which the world describes itself through the experience of the five senses. Knowledge arising from sensation is perfected by reflection, thus enabling humans to arrive at such ideas as space, time, and infinity.

Locke distinguished the primary qualities of things (e.g., solidity, extension, number) from their secondary qualities (e.g., color, sound). These latter qualities he held to be produced by the impact of the world on the sense organs. Behind this curtain of sensation the world itself is colorless and silent. Science is possible, Locke maintained, because the primary world affects the sense organs mechanically, thus producing ideas that faithfully represent reality. The clear, common-sense style of the Essay concealed many unexplored assumptions that the later empiricists George Berkeley and David Hume would contest, but the problems that Locke set forth have occupied philosophy in one way or another ever since.

Political Theory

Locke is most renowned for his political theory. Contradicting Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that the original state of nature was happy and characterized by reason and tolerance. In that state all people were equal and independent, and none had a right to harm another's "life, health, liberty, or possessions." The state was formed by social contract because in the state of nature each was his own judge, and there was no protection against those who lived outside the law of nature. The state should be guided by natural law.

Rights of property are very important, because each person has a right to the product of his or her labor. Locke forecast the labor theory of value. The policy of governmental checks and balances, as delineated in the Constitution of the United States, was set down by Locke, as was the doctrine that revolution in some circumstances is not only a right but an obligation. At Shaftesbury's behest, he contributed to the Fundamental Constitutions for the Carolinas; the colony's proprietors, however, never implemented the document.

Ethical Theory

Locke based his ethical theories upon belief in the natural goodness of humanity. The inevitable pursuit of happiness and pleasure, when conducted rationally, leads to cooperation, and in the long run private happiness and the general welfare coincide. Immediate pleasures must give way to a prudent regard for ultimate good, including reward in the afterlife. He argued for broad religious freedom in three separate essays on toleration but excepted atheism and Roman Catholicism, which he felt should be legislated against as inimical to religion and the state. In his essay The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), he emphasized the ethical aspect of Christianity against dogma.

Bibliography

See biographies by M. W. Cranston (1957) and R. Aaron (3d ed. 1971); R. S. Woolhouse, Locke's Philosophy of Science and Knowledge (1971); J. W. Gough, ed., John Locke's Political Philosophy; Eight Essays (2d ed. 1973); E. Tagart, Locke's Writings and Philosophy Historically Considered (1977); R. W. Grant, John Locke's Liberalism (1987).

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16 of the Best Books and Articles on: John Locke

as selected by Questia librarians

1.

Locke: A Very Short Introduction » Read Now
by John Dunn. 112 pgs.

Collections: Philosophy, Entire Library

John Locke (1632-1704) one of the greatest English philosophers of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century, argued in his masterpiece, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, that our knowledge is founded in experience and reaches us principally through our senses; but its message has...
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John Locke (1632-1704) one of the greatest English philosophers of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century, argued in his masterpiece, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, that our knowledge is founded in experience and reaches us principally through our senses; but its message has been curiously misunderstood. In this book John Dunn shows how Locke arrived at his theory of knowledge, and how his exposition of the liberal values of toleration and responsiblegovernment formed the backbone of enlightened European thought of the eighteenth century.
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2.

A Letter Concerning Toleration » Read Now
by John Locke. 64 pgs.

Collections: Religious Studies, Philosophy, Entire Library

...General Editor NUMBER TWENTY-TWO JOHN LOCKE A Letter Concerning Toleration...LETTER CONCERNING TOLERATION By JOHN LOCKE With an Introduction by PATRICK...Concerning...
3.

Locke on Money, Vol. 1 » Read Now
by John Locke. 342 pgs.

Collections: Entire Library

Locke on Money presents for the first time the entire body of the philosopher's writings on this important subject (other than Two Treatises of Government). Accurate texts, together with an apparatus listing variant readings and significant manuscript changes, record the evolution of Locke's ideas...
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Locke on Money presents for the first time the entire body of the philosopher's writings on this important subject (other than Two Treatises of Government). Accurate texts, together with an apparatus listing variant readings and significant manuscript changes, record the evolution of Locke's ideas from the original 1668-74 paper on interest to the three pamphlets on interest and coinage published in the 1690s. The introduction by Patrick Hyde Kelly establishes the wider context of Locke's writings in terms of contemporary debates on these subjects, the economic conditions of the time, and the circumstances of writing and publication. It shows, notably, that Locke's supposed responsibility for the 1696 recoinage is a myth. The account of what Locke derived from Mercantilist writings and of how he reformulated these in accordance with his philosophy illuminates his contribution to the evolution of economics, and will aid reappraisal of Two Treatises. The picture that emerges confirms Locke's status as major economic thinker, contrary to the prevalent view of recent decades. There are two volumes in the present edition. The first contains the introductory matter, and the texts of the Early Writings on Interest, 1688-74, and Some Considerations. The second comprises Short Observations, Further Considerations, and the Appendices, Bibliography, and Index.
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4.

The Second Treatise of Government » Read Now
by John Locke. 140 pgs.

Collections: Philosophy, History, Entire Library

...SECOND TREATISE OF GOVERNMENT JOHN LOCKE Edited, with an Introduction, by...INTRODUCTION Lockes Life John Locke 1632- 1704 is probably the most...centuries. Like Hobbes and...
5.

The Reasonableness of Christianity: With a Discourse of Miracles, and Part of a Third Letter concerning Toleration » Read Now
by John Locke. 104 pgs.

Collections: Religious Studies, Philosophy, Entire Library

...of Modern Religious Thought JOHN LOCKE The Reasonableness of Christianity...and edited by T. H. Croxall JOHN LOCKE THE REASONABLENESS OF CHRISTIANITY...MOVEMENT Edited by...
6.

Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Locke on Government » Read Now
by D. A. Lloyd Thomas. 142 pgs.

Collections: Philosophy, Entire Library

John Locke is one of the most important figures in the history of political thought. His Second Treatise on Government was one of the most significant political statements of its time and provides the foundations of liberal political thought. His views on the social contract, political obligation...
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John Locke is one of the most important figures in the history of political thought. His Second Treatise on Government was one of the most significant political statements of its time and provides the foundations of liberal political thought. His views on the social contract, political obligation, rebellion, revolution and property remain strikingly relevant today. Locke on Government introduces and assesses:* Locke's life and the background to the Second Treatise on Government *The text and ideas of the Second Treatise *The continuing importance of Locke's work to philosophyFor student's coming to Locke for the first time, Locke on Government will be an invaluable guide to his political thought.
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7.

God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations of John Locke's Political Thought » Read Now
by Jeremy Waldron. 263 pgs.

Collections: Religious Studies, History, Entire Library

Jeremy Waldron, one of the leading political philosophers of our time, looks at the principle of equality in the thought of John Locke, and the extent to which this is grounded in Christian principles. Throughout the text, Waldron discusses contemporary approaches to equality and rival...
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Jeremy Waldron, one of the leading political philosophers of our time, looks at the principle of equality in the thought of John Locke, and the extent to which this is grounded in Christian principles. Throughout the text, Waldron discusses contemporary approaches to equality and rival interpretations of Locke, making his book unusually accessible and intellectually exciting. It will be of interest to philosophers, political theorists, lawyers and theologians around the world. Jeremy Waldron is the Maurice and Hilda Friedman Professor at Columbia Law School and Director of Columbia's Center for Law and Philosophy. Waldron has taught and lectured at UC Berkeley, Princeton University, Edinburgh University, Oxford University and Cambridge University. His books include The Dignity of Legislation (Cambridge, 1999), The Right to Private Property (Oxford, 1988) and The Law (Routledge, 1990). Waldron contributes to the London Review of Books and the New York Times Book Review.
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8.

The Philosophy of John Locke: New Perspectives » Read Now
by Peter R. Anstey. 208 pgs.

Collections: Philosophy, Entire Library

Covering Locke's natural philosophy, his political and moral thought and his philosophy of religion this book brings together the pioneering work of some of the world's leading Locke scholars.
9.

Locke's Philosophy: Content and Context » Read Now
by G. A. J. Rogers. 258 pgs.

Collections: Philosophy, Entire Library

Three hundred years after his major publications, John Locke remains one of the most potent philosophical influences in the world today. His epistemology has become embedded in our everyday presumptions about the world, and his political theory lies at the heart of the liberal democratic state. This...
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Three hundred years after his major publications, John Locke remains one of the most potent philosophical influences in the world today. His epistemology has become embedded in our everyday presumptions about the world, and his political theory lies at the heart of the liberal democratic state. This collection by a distinguished international group of scholars looks both at core areas of Locke's philosophy and political theory and at areas not usually discussed the links between Locke's philosophy and his religious and political thought, the effects and implications of Locke's works in the world at the time, and the manifestation of those effects in the present day. Drawing on material not available until recently both the modern texts of the Clarendon Edition of Locke's works and unpublished manuscripts Locke's Philosophy: Content and Context adds to our appreciation of Locke's thought and influences as the first original collection of Locke scholarship in some years.
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10.

John Locke and the Problem of Depravity » Read Now
by W. M. Spellman. 246 pgs.

Collections: Philosophy, Entire Library

Closely examining Locke's view of original sin and its consequences for education in the early Enlightenment, Spellman here argues that Locke was much closer to traditional Protestant teaching than is generally recognized, and challenges the interpretation that sees Locke as advocating, through his...
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Closely examining Locke's view of original sin and its consequences for education in the early Enlightenment, Spellman here argues that Locke was much closer to traditional Protestant teaching than is generally recognized, and challenges the interpretation that sees Locke as advocating, through his philosophical and educational writings, the perfectibility of humankind.
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11.

John Locke and America: The Defence of English Colonialism » Read Now
by Barbara Arneil. 232 pgs.

Collections: Entire Library

This book considers the context of the colonial policies of Britain, Locke's contribution to them, and the importance of these ideas in his theory of property. It also reconsiders the debate about John Locke's influence in America, challenging a number of other interpretations. The author breaks new...
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This book considers the context of the colonial policies of Britain, Locke's contribution to them, and the importance of these ideas in his theory of property. It also reconsiders the debate about John Locke's influence in America, challenging a number of other interpretations. The author breaks new ground in her interpretation of Locke's writings about the Indians and English colonization of America--a subject largely overlooked in the past. The book argues that Locke's theory of property must be understood in connection with the philosopher's political concerns, as part of his endeavour to justify the colonialist policies of Lord Shaftesbury's cabinet, with which he was personally associated. The author maintains that traditional scholarship has failed to do justice to Locke by ignoring the implications of contemporary British imperial policy for the interpretation of his political thought. The book offers a new insight into Locke's theory of property, suggesting a solution to the problem of why Locke himself assigned such importance to property in the state of nature being based on labour while at the same time asserting that property in civil society is based on convention.
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12.

The Life of Reason: Hobbes, Locke, Bolingbroke » Read Now
by D. G. James. 274 pgs.

Collections: Philosophy, Entire Library

...wonders of 1 John Aubrey, Brief Lives , ed. Andrew Clark...they proceed? Hobbes was a rationalist. Locke, who comes after him, was a rationalist...less to say for poetry...
13.

Locke, Hobbes, and the Federalist Papers: An Essay on the Genesis of the American Political Heritage » Read Now
by George Mace. 162 pgs.

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...1588-1679--Political science. 2. Locke, John, 1632-1704--Political science...analysis of the political theories of John Locke and Thomas Hobbes and have compared...of...
14.

Natural Rights and the New Republicanism » Read Now
by Michael P. Zuckert. 397 pgs.

Collections: Entire Library

Here Michael Zuckert proposes a new view of the political philosophy that lay behind the founding of the United States. In a book that will interest political scientists, historians, and philosophers, Zuckert looks at the Whig or opposition tradition as it developed in England. He argues that there...
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Here Michael Zuckert proposes a new view of the political philosophy that lay behind the founding of the United States. In a book that will interest political scientists, historians, and philosophers, Zuckert looks at the Whig or opposition tradition as it developed in England. He argues that there were, in fact, three opposition traditions: Protestant, Grotian, and Lockean. Before the English Civil War the opposition was inspired by the effort to find the one true Protestant politicsDLan effort that was seen to be a failure by the end of the Interregnum period. The Restoration saw the emergence of the Whigs, who sought a way to ground politics free from the sectarian theological-scriptural conflicts of the previous period. This exemplary work of historical reconstruction dramatically transforms our understanding of the genealogy of early American political thought. No one who deals with the eighteenth-century Anglo-American political tradition will be able to avoid the unsettling challenge of Zuckert's original and painstakingly documented reinterpretation, for this is one of those rare scholarly achievements, at once capacious and meticulous, that forces all of us back to the drawing boards. DLThomas L. Pangle, William and Mary Quarterly This is a work of careful scholarship and vast erudition.... By illustrating how Lockean and republican ideas came to be blended, Zuckert forcefully recounts the origins of the American republic. DLRichard Vernier, The Journal of American History
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15.

The Career of Toleration: John Locke, Jonas Proast, and After » Read Now
by Richard Vernon. 168 pgs.

Collections: Religious Studies, Entire Library

Richard Vernon provides a timely examination of John Locke's arguments in defence of A Letter Concerning Toleration and a case for thinking that the exchange between Proast and Locke is as important for the 20th century as it was for the 17th.
16.

The Educational Writings of John Locke: A Critical Edition with Introduction and Notes » Read Now
by James L. Axtell. 450 pgs.

Collections: Education, Entire Library

...THE EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS OF JOHN LOCKE A CRITICAL EDITION WITH INTRODUCTION...NOTES THE EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS OF JOHN LOCKE A CRITICAL EDITION WITH INTRODUCTION...edited the...