American Literature - literature in English produced in what is now the United States of America.
Colonial Literature American writing began with the work of English adventurers and colonists in the New World chiefly for the benefit of readers in the mother country. Some of these early works reached the level of literature, as in the robust and perhaps truthful account of his adventures by Captain John
Smith and the sober, tendentious journalistic histories of John
Winthrop and William
Bradford in New England. From the beginning, however, the literature of New England was also directed to the edification and instruction of the colonists themselves, intended to direct them in the ways of the godly. The first work published in the Puritan colonies was the Bay Psalm Book (1640), and the whole effort of the divines who wrote furiously to set forth their views—among them Roger
Williams and Thomas
Hooker—was to defend and promote visions of the religious state. They set forth their visions—in effect the first formulation of the concept of national destiny—in a series of impassioned histories and jeremiads from Edward
Johnson's Wonder-Working Providence (1654) to Cotton
Mather's epic Magnalia Christi Americana (1702). Even Puritan poetry was offered uniformly to the service of God. Michael
Wigglesworth's Day of Doom (1662) was uncompromisingly theological, and Anne
Bradstreet's poems, issued as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650), were reflective of her own piety. The best of the Puritan poets, Edward
Taylor, whose work was not published until two centuries after his death, wrote metaphysical verse worthy of comparison with that of the English metaphysical poet George
Herbert. Sermons and tracts poured forth until austere Calvinism found its last utterance in the words of Jonathan
Edwards. In the other colonies writing was usually more mundane and on the whole less notable, though the journal of the Quaker John
Woolman is highly esteemed, and some critics maintain that the best writing of the colonial period is found in the witty and urbane observations of William
Byrd, a gentleman planter of Westover, Virginia. A New Nation and a New Literature The approach of the American Revolution and the achievement of the actual independence of the United States was a time of intellectual activity as well as social and economic change. The men who were the chief molders of the new state included excellent writers, among them Thomas
Jefferson and Alexander
Hamilton. They were well supported by others such as Philip
Freneau, the first American lyric poet of distinction and an able journalist; the pamphleteer Thomas
Paine, later an attacker of conventional religion; and the polemicist Francis
Hopkinson, who was also the first American musical composer. The variously gifted Benjamin
Franklin forwarded American literature not only through his own writing but also by founding and promoting newspapers and periodicals. Many literary aspirants, such as John
Trumbull, Timothy
Dwight, Joel
Barlow, and the other
Connecticut Wits, used English models. The infant American theater showed a nationalistic character both in its first comedy, The Contrast (1787), by Royall
Tyler, and in the dramas of William
Dunlap. The first American novel, The Power of Sympathy (1789), by William Hill Brown, only shortly preceded the Gothic romance, Wieland (1799), by the first professional American novelist, Charles Brockden
Brown. Recognition in Europe, and especially in England, was coveted by every aspiring American writer and was first achieved by two men from New York: Washington
Irving, who first won attention by presenting American folk stories, and James Fenimore
Cooper, who wrote enduring tales of adventure on the frontier and at sea. By 1825 William Cullen
Bryant had made himself the leading poet of America with his delicate lyrics extolling nature and his smooth, philosophic poems in the best mode of
romanticism. Even more distinctly a part of the romantic movement were such poets as Joseph Rodman
Drake, Fitz-Greene
Halleck, and Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow, who won the hearts of Americans with glib, moralizing verse and also commanded international respect. Ralph Waldo
Emerson and Henry David
Thoreau stood at the center of
transcendentalism, a movement that made a deep impression upon their native land and upon Europe. High-mindedness, moral earnestness, the desire to reform society and education, the assertion of a philosophy of the individual as superior to tradition and society—all these were strongly American, and transcendentalists such as Emerson, Thoreau, Margaret
Fuller, and Bronson
Alcott insisted upon such principles. Men as diverse as James Russell
Lowell, Boston "Brahmin," poet, and critic, and John Greenleaf
Whittier, the bucolic poet, joined in support of the abolitionist cause. The more worldly and correct Oliver Wendell
Holmes reflected the vigorous intellectual spirit of the time, as did the historians William Hickling
Prescott, George
Bancroft, Francis
Parkman, and John Lothrop
Motley. Their solemn histories were as distinctly American as the broadly humorous writing that became popular early in the 19th cent. This was usually set forth as the sayings of semiliterate, often raffish, and always shrewd American characters like Hosea Biglow (James Russell Lowell), Artemus
Ward (Charles Farrar Browne), Petroleum Vesuvius
Nasby (David Ross Locke), Josh
Billings (Henry Walker Shaw), and Sut Lovingood (G. W. Harris). Far removed from these humorists in spirit and style was Edgar Allan
Poe, whose skilled and emotional poetry, clearly expressed aesthetic theories, and tales of mystery and horror won for him a more respectful audience in Europe than—originally, at least—in America. A number of seminal works of American literature were written during the 1850s. These include Nathaniel
Hawthorne's novel The Scarlet Letter (1850), depicting the gloomy atmosphere of early Puritanism; Herman
Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), which infused into an adventure tale of whaling days profound symbolic significance; and the rolling measures of Walt
Whitman's Leaves of Grass (1st ed. 1855), which employed a new kind of poetry and proclaimed the optimistic principles of American democracy. The Literature of a Split and a Reunited Nation The rising conflict between the North and the South that ended in the Civil War was reflected in regional literature. The crusading spirit against Southern slavery in Harriet Beecher
Stowe's overwhelmingly successful novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) can be compared with the violent anti-Northern diatribes of William Gilmore
Simms. While the Civil War was taking its inexorable course, the case for reunion was set forth by President Abraham
Lincoln in that purest and most exact statement of American political ideals, the Gettysburg Address. Once the war was over, literature gradually regained a national identity amid expanding popularity, as writings of regional origin began to find a mass audience. The stories of the California gold fields by Bret
Harte, the rustic novel (The Hoosier Schoolmaster; 1871) of Edward
Eggleston, the rhymes of James Whitcomb
Riley, the New England genre stories of Sarah Orne
Jewett and Mary E. Wilkins
Freeman, the sketches of Louisiana by George W.
Cable, even the romance of the Old South woven by the poetry of Henry
Timrod and Sidney
Lanier and the fiction of Thomas Nelson
Page—all were seized eagerly by the readers of the reunited nation. The outstanding example of genius overcoming any regionalism in scene can be found in many of the works of Mark
Twain, most notably in his Huckleberry Finn (1884). Drama after the Civil War and into the 20th cent. continued to rely, as it had before, on spectacles, on the plays of Shakespeare, and on some of the works of English and Continental playwrights. A few popular plays such as Uncle Tom's Cabin and Rip Van Winkle were based on American fiction; others were crude melodrama.
Realism, however, came to the theater with some of the plays of Bronson
Howard, James A. Herne, and William Vaughn
Moody. The Turn of the Century Trends in American Fiction The connection of American literature with writing in England and Europe was again stressed by William Dean
Howells, who was not only an able novelist but an instructor in literary realism to other American writers. Though he himself had leanings toward social reform, Howells did encourage what has come to be called "genteel" writing, long dominant in American fiction. The mold for this sort of writing was broken by the American turned Englishman, Henry
James, who wrote of people of the upper classes but with such psychological penetration, subtlety of narrative, and complex technical skill that he is recognized as one of the great masters of fiction. His influence was quickly reflected in the novels of Edith Wharton and others and continued to grow in strength in the 20th cent. The realism preached by Howells was turned away from bourgeois milieus by a number of American writers, particularly Stephen
Crane in his poetry and his fiction—Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) and the Civil War story, The Red Badge of Courage (1895). These were forerunners of
naturalism, which reached heights in the hands of Theodore
Dreiser and Jack
London, the latter a fiery advocate of social reform as well as a writer of Klondike stories. Ever since the Civil War, voices of protest and doubt have been heard in American fiction. Mark Twain (with Charles Dudley
Warner) had in The Gilded Age (1873) held the postwar get-rich-quick era up to scorn. By the early 20th cent. Henry
Adams was musing upon the effects of the dynamo's triumph over man, and Ambrose
Bierce literally abandoned a civilization he could not abide. American Verse Since the mid-19th cent. American poetry had | 
