This chapter discusses the use of animals in research. It provides a brief
history of animal research and examines the ethical arguments for and
against animal experimentation. The chapter discusses the animal rights
views of Peter Singer and Tom Regan and considers some morally signif-
icant differences between animals and humans. It also discusses some
principles for the ethical treatment of animal in research, such as the
“three Rs”—reduction, replacement, and refinement—as well as animal
research regulations.

Experimentation on (nonhuman) animals is one of the most controversial is-
sues in research ethics. Like the abortion debate, the issue has been hotly con-
tested and often violent. Animal rights activists have freed laboratory animals
and destroyed research records, materials, equipment, and buildings to protest
what they consider immoral uses of animals (Koenig 1999). Animal welfare
organizations have not condoned violence, but they have taken strong stands
against specific types of animal research. Researchers, on the other hand, have
rallied around the cause of animal research and have developed professional
organizations, such as the National Association for Biomedical Research and
the Foundation for Biomedical Research, to promote the humane use of ani-
mals in research. Given the highly polarized nature of this debate, one won-
ders whether there can be any hope of some consensus on the issue (DeGrazia
1991).

Estimates of the number of animals used in research vary from 17 to 70
million animals per year (LaFollette and Shanks 1996). Advances in technol-
ogy have made it possible to eliminate some uses of animals in research and re-
place animal models with other testing procedures, such as tissue cultures and
computer simulations (Barnard and Kaufman 1997). Researchers are also find-
ing ways to obtain valid results using fewer animals. Additionally, universities
are using fewer live animals in educating graduate and undergraduate stu-
dents. The number of animal experimental procedures conducted in the United
Kingdom declined from 5.2 million in 1978 to 3 million in 1998. However,
this trend may reverse as researchers increase the number of animals used in
transgenic research (Stokstad 1999).

Approximately 40% of animals used in research are used in basic or applied
research, 26% are used in drug development, and 20% are used in safety test-
ing. The remaining 14% are used for educational or other scientific purposes
(Pence 1995). Most of what we know about basic animal physiology, anatomy,
biochemistry, embryology, development, genetics, cytology, neurology, im-
munology, cardiology, and endocrinology has been gained through experi-
ments on animals. Animals are commonly used in applied research to test new

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