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Armenian and Greek communities, their political power in the general Otto-
man system was very limited. 41 By the 1800s, ambitious non-Muslims were
already seeking distinction in society as leaders of national movements.


Notes
1 Halil Įnalcik, Fatih Devri Üzerinde Tetkikler ve Vesīkalar, Ankara, 1954, Chap. 4, "Stefan
Dușan'dan Osmanli Įmperatorluğuna", pp. 137-184
2 Ibid., p. 184, no. 190. For more recent publications see n. 22, below. Joseph Hacker has
brought to my attention a Jewish timar-holder in the 1430s, Suret-i Defter-i Sancak-i Arvanid,
Halil Įnalcik, ed. Ankara, 1954, p. 43, no. 98: timar-i Hayo yahudi
3 On estimates of conversions to Islam, see the works of Richard W. Bulliet, "Conversion to
Islam and the Emergence of Muslim Society in Iran", in Conversion to Islam, Nehemia Levzion,
ed. New York, 1978, and Conversion to Islam in the Middle Ages: An Essay in Quantitative
History, Cambridge, Ma., 1979
4 Nasīr al-Din Tī, The Nasirean Ethics, G. M. Wickens, trans. London, 1964. For the type
of state from the thirteenth century see Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, vol. 2: The
Expansion of Islam in the Middle Periods, book 4, Chapter 1: "After the Mongol Irruption: Politics
and Society, 1259-1405", Chicago, 1974, pp. 386-436
5 See the most recent studies of Speros Vryonis Jr., "Nomadization and Islamization in Asia
Minor", Dumbarton Oaks Papers 29 ( 1975), pp. 41-71, and especially his provocative article
"Evidence on Human Sacrifice Among the Early Ottoman Turks", Journal of Asian History, 5
( 1971), pp. 140-146
6 G. Georgiades Arnakis, "Gregory Palamas Among the Turks and Documents of His Captiv-
ity as Historical Sources", Speculum, 26 ( 1951), pp. 104-118, especially pp. 115-16. In his com-
ments on the original version of the present study, Andreas Tietze, too, emphasized the impor-
tance of the central Asian heritage in early Ottoman society, especially in terms of the flexibility to
absorb outsiders and to give them positions of responsibility commensurate with their abilities. A
new analysis of early Ottoman society as a "tribe" is in Rudi Paul Lindner, "Ottoman Government
and Nomad Society", unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1976,
especially Chap. 2, "Ottoman Success and Ottoman Settlements", pp. 15-61
7 Arnakis, (cited n. 6), p. 110
8 Ibid., p. 108
9 Ibid., pp. 113-114 ; G. G. Arnakis, "Gregory Palamas, the Xiones, and the Fall of Gallipoli",
Byzantion, 22 ( 1952), pp. 305-312; Paul Wittek, "Xiones", Byzantion, 21 ( 1951), pp. 421-423
10 J. Meyendorff, "Grecs, Turcs et Juifs en Asie Mineure au XIVe Siécle", Byzantinische
Forschungen, 1 ( 1966), pp. 211-217
11 Ibid., p. 213. In view of the usages Meyendorff notes to mean "converts to Judaism"
(p. 215) and the fact that the specific chiones Palamas debated said that they became Turks when
they realized the Turks respected the ten commendments of Moses; and because Palamas says
that these people were obviously Jews and not Turks (pp. 212-213), Meyendorff and Lindner (cited
n. 6), pp. 60-61, n. 132, believe them to have been Christian converts to Judaism in an effort to
approach Turks. But the chiones say they have become Turks! Were they recent Turcophones but

-65-

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Publication Information: Book Title: Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society. Volume: 1. Contributors: Benjamin Braude - editor, Bernard Lewis - editor. Publisher: Homes & Meier. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 1982. Page Number: 65.
    
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