WHEN the twentieth century opened in 1901 the Euro-
pean powers had been at peace for thirty years, and
there had been no general European war in eighty-five
years. All the leading nations except Russia had created
the machinery for parliamentary government, although
in Germany and Austria-Hungary this machinery did
not always function and ministries might defy a majority
of the popular representatives and remain in office des-
pite votes of no confidence from the lower chamber.
Grave problems existed, social and internal tensions were
increasing, but faith in progress and reason was strong,
and most people believed their political machinery
adequate to resolve the strains by timely readjustments.
In this they were mistaken. The problems were not
solved. In 1914 the disruptive forces within European
society escaped control and the continent was plunged
into a disastrous struggle that reduced its population
and left its economy shattered. The outbreak of this
First World War marked the close of an historical epoch.
When the relative equilibrium that had endured since
1815 broke down in 1914, the 460,000,000 inhabitants of
Europe entered a new era of violent conflicts, economic
collapse and social revolution. Those who survived
learned to look back with regret to the years before

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