The hopes of Social Democrats in early 1931 did not prove well-
founded. The year was grueling. Unemployment reached extraordinary
levels. In January 1931, 4,886,925 people, about a quarter of the work
force, were unemployed; by February 1932, 6,041,910, over one-third,
had no job. In 1931, 92 percent of those out of work were blue-collar
workers. ¹ Government policies did nothing to cushion the population
from the dire effects of the collapse of the private economy. Indeed,
Brüning's emergency decrees severely reduced social welfare outlays,
federal support to local and state governments, and civil service salaries.
Also, high agrarian tariffs hurt urban consumers. Wages fell by 12 to 13
percent in 1931, while prices declined by only 4 to 5 percent. Both the
economic crisis and Brüning's policies unfairly burdened the urban work-
ing class. ² Not only workers but virtually all social groups viewed the
ascetic "Hunger Chancellor" with bitterness. On the political front, the
Reich government resisted Prussian pressure for a tougher stance against
Nazi street violence. In addition, the results of local and state elections
were uniformly unfavorable to the SPD. Nevertheless, the increasing
hostility of big business toward Brüning as well as the unrelenting growth
of the NSDAP cast the chancellor ever more as the lesser evil. Caught in a
spiral of escalating commitment, the SPD executive committee hardened
in its conviction that toleration of Brüning was the only feasible political
course to follow. In the ranks, meanwhile, disillusionment with toleration
spread. Discontent led to a break between the Left Opposition and the
majority. Even leaders of the Reichstag delegation and the Free Trade
Unions privately expressed doubts about the policy. More frequent than
calls to alter the SPD's parliamentary tactic, however, were demands for
reform of the SPD's propaganda and organization; yet significant change
did not occur. By the late fall of 1931 the mobilization of the previous
winter had petered out, and demoralization engulfed Social Democracy.

Otto Braun acted swiftly to implement his plan to use Prussian
state power against radical rowdyism. Appalled by the passive response of
the Berlin police to the violence and vandalism of the SA on October 13,

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