active in the helping role than in other methods. In some applications of
PAL, the definition of peer might seem somewhat stretched, as when
university students tutor young school children. However, a peer always
remains very different from a salaried, and ultimately controlling, profes-
sional teacher.

Archaic perceptions of PAL considered the peer helper as a surrogate
teacher, in a linear model of the transmission of knowledge, from teacher
to peer helper to tutee. Traditionally, there was an assumption that peer
helpers should be among the best students (i.e., those who were most like
the professional teachers). However, the differential in levels of ability and
interest in such a situation could prove understimulating for the helper, who
was unlikely to gain cognitively from the interactions. Later, it was realized
that the peer helping interaction was qualitatively different from that
between a professional teacher and a child or young person, and involved
different advantages and disadvantages.

Recently, there has been more interest in deploying helpers whose
capabilities are nearer to those of the helped, so that both members of the
pair find some cognitive challenge in their joint activities. The helper is
intended to be learning by teaching and is also a more proximate and
credible model under these circumstances. Thus, PAL projects now almost
always target gains for both helpers and helped; double added value.

The education system is frequently criticized for failing to raise standards
in literacy, numeracy, and science and is often blamed for apparent declines.
Additionally, there is criticism for failing to promote the development of
vocationally relevant transferable skills in high schools. The quality and
cost-effectiveness of teaching and learning methods and resources has never
before been so closely scrutinized.

The occasional clarion calls of "back to basics" are paradoxical. Didactic
curriculum delivery, coupled with crude and brief summative assessment
methods, are known to promote a surface approach to learning--the kind
of learning of which machines are now capable--rather than a deep or
intelligent approach.

Government attempts to be seen to be doing something about it too
frequently result only in increased administration and bureaucracy, reduc-
ing the time, energy, motivation, and other resources available for teaching.

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