This book began as two independent papers which were
presented before a number of audiences in Britain and
Germany in the years after 1974. As we compared notes it
became clearer that we were working in a similar direction.
The idea of putting the two papers together took shape, and
Dieter Groh suggested that we publish them in a new social
history series he was then editing in the Federal Republic of
Germany. The original German edition appeared in 1980 and
was followed in 1983 by a Japanese edition. For the much
revised and expanded English edition we have tried to take
account of the intervening discussion. The Introduction
(which is entirely new) and the revised versions of our two
essays were written during 1982-3. The essays were separately
authored and are intended to stand in their own right. The
attentive reader will notice that there are differences between
our two approaches, not only in style and substance, but also
in content. Our common ground should nevertheless be
equally obvious, and our close working relationship over
many years has meant that it is sometimes difficult to re-
member with whom a particular idea originated. Despite
differences of emphasis, we therefore hope that our two
essays will be read as complementary. The Introduction was
an exercise in transatlantic co-operation, drafted by one of
us, redrafted by the other, and agreed by us both.

Works of this kind necessarily owe much to the previous
labours of others. Our general intellectual debts are indicated
in both text and footnotes. We are happy to acknowledge a
more immediate debt to the many seminar audiences in
Britain, the USA, and the Federal Republic of Germany
which helped us to develop our ideas. Over the years we
have also profited greatly from the suggestions and criticisms
of colleagues and friends, amongst whom Richard Bessel,
David Bien, Jane Caplan, David Crew, Dick Geary, Raymond
Grew, Dieter Groh, Gareth Stedman Jones, Keith Nield,
Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, and Roman Szporluk
deserve particular mention. Dieter Groh made an important

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