dominion "that will stand forever" (II Baruch 40). This active, political,
Messianism motivated the rebellion of Bar Kokhba, whom Rabbi Akiba
appears to have acknowledged as the "King Messiah"; ⁴ he expected Hag.
2:6 ("Yet once, it is a little while, and I will shake the heavens, and the
earth . . .") to be fulfilled in his era. His opponent, Johanan ben Torta
objected to the idea of nearness of redemption ("Akiba, grass will be
growing from your cheeks and the Son of David would not be coming"). ⁵ This argument may be considered as pointing to a significant modifica-
tion of the Messianic theory in the post-Bar Kokhba period. The aban-
donment or at least weakening, of the belief that Messianic action was at
hand and subjugation soon to be turned into triumph implies a change in
attitude towards the "fourth kingdom", Rome. The postponement of the
Messianic event must be understood as both retraction of Israel's ancient
claim to world rulership and admission of Rome to the place originally
believed to have been reserved for Jerusalem. This change in the respec-
tive historic position of Rome and Jerusalem is related to another issue:
the importance of the historic world itself.

Agrippa's speech, as reported by Josephus ⁶ and Josephus' own ad-
dress to the defenders of Jerusalem, ⁷ speeches in which the greatness and
the power of Rome are depicted, suggest that that historic world was a
God-willed world. It was He who transferred the authority from Israel to
Rome. "God, who had given all the nations power in turn, has now
settled in Italy." ⁸ Thus those who "war against the Romans war against
God Himself." ⁹ Jose ben Kisma's appeal to one of the Ten Martyrs of the
post-Bar Kokhba period formulates a similar concept: "Don't you know
that it is Heaven that made this (Roman) nation to have dominion?" ¹⁰ The "firm establishment" of Rome is taken as a proof of its legitimate
place within the divine plan. Simeon ben Yohai (mid-second cent.),
pronounced foe of Rome, stated that the "greatness of God's name is
revealed only when He executes judgment on the sinful nations"; ¹¹ however, quoting Ezek. 38:8, he knew, that this will take place only
"after many days"; it would nott be "soon." ¹² Simon's contemporary,
Meir, taught that ultimately, Rome "will return the kingdom to its
rightful owner," God, ¹³ but her present dominion was tacitly recog-
nized. God sees "the kings placing their crowns on their heads and
bowing down to the sun" and merely becomes "wrathful." ¹⁴ The
urgency and imminence of divine intervention appear to be greatly
reduced.

Israel's exile and exclusion while the four kingdoms ascend and de-
scend the ladder (the image is borrowed from the story of Jacob's dream)
Meir ascribed to her lack of faith in the divine promise of her victorious
role in history. ¹⁵ Ultimate return from exile was envisaged; but it is
the-indefinite-future in which God will again act in the full light of
historic events. More and more did the present lose significance as the

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