The last generation of the nineteenth century fills a peculiar place in
American thinking. It seems remote and grandfatherly, but its prob-
lems and ideals are still real. It radiated optimism in a time of great
change, but seldom trusted what the twentieth century calls "ideal-
ism." Frankly materialistic, it was aware of human limitations, and
assumed that well-being both reflected and created progress. These
ideals spread through all levels of society, not just among those who
ruled. Millions who hoped to rise, and often did, clung fervently to
ethics symbolized by successful men.

All this confuses scholars, who usually dismiss the period as an
interlude between the Civil War and Progressivism. Historians have
recently re-examined the era's diplomacy, economy, and culture, but
few have studied party politics. General accounts and textbooks too
often repeat facile conclusions that make every businessman a robber
baron and all politicians humbugs. This usually reflects poor informa-
tion. Detailed studies are scarce, and fragmentary sources make re-
search into politics difficult. A generation of men more interested in
power than fame kept poor records. Bitter struggles within and be-
tween parties to retain and consolidate support put a premium on the
quiet compromise and unwritten understanding among leaders, which
hampers historical investigation. A predominantly Republican era has
also found few partisans among historians who tend to be "liberal"
Democrats.

These politicians seem genteel and bland, but the issues they met
were deeply significant, attesting to America's emergence as a great
industrial state and international power. Tariff protection, free silver,
and civil service reform only sound archaic. As reciprocity, inflation,

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