emigrants' experiences in Haiti point also to the divisions within black Amer-
ica, and to the ambiguities and contradictions of the black nationalism that was
espoused by the movement's leaders. Emigrants, many of whom left the United
States not because of a deep-seated commitment to the principles of black na-
tionalism, however vaguely defined, but rather because they saw in the Haitian
scheme an escape from oppression and an opportunity for individual self-
advancement, encountered enormous difficulties in Haiti. Indeed, many Afri-
can Americans who relocated to Haiti were soon disillusioned. Initially confi-
dent that their experiences and acumen would enable them to achieve material
security in their new home, and hoping to find political and civic freedom in the
black republic, emigrants soon realized that the Haitian authorities were un-
able--or unwilling--to fulfill the promises they had made. To the Haitian lead-
ership the African American immigrants were a resource, a means of improving
the island's productivity and prosperity; no doubt, too, many ordinary Hai-
tians viewed the immigrants from the United States with deep suspicion. The
emigrants' difficulties attested not only to the distinctions within African Amer-
ica, but were also suggestive of the profound differences between blacks in the
United States and elsewhere. Paradoxically, as their black nationalist vision re-
vealed, the African American leadership was itself aware of those distinctions.

The demise of Haitian emigrationism during the 1820s, and again during
the 1860s, can be attributed in part to the settlers' difficulties and disappoint-
ments in the black republic. Important, too, were the vociferous denuncia-
tions of the scheme from a number of black leaders who refused to distinguish
between the Haitian movement and that of the much-detested ACS. If noth-
ing else, the strident opposition to the scheme from some black leaders hinted
at the potential appeal of Haitian emigrationism. It is well to remember, too,
that Haitian emigrationists were not the only ones who failed to achieve their
goals. Although emancipation did occur as a consequence of the Civil War, ad-
vocates of the stay-and-fight doctrine failed to achieve equality for black
Americans. Black recognition of the divergence between American rhetoric,
and the reality of American racism, coupled with their understanding of the
ongoing distinction between "freedom" and "equality," helps to account for
the recurring interest in emigrationism through succeeding decades.

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