Perpetually short of money, the Memphis public schools ranked
near the bottom among cities in the United States during the late
nineteenth century. Even in the South, although the disparity was
not great, Memphis fell behind on most standards of measurement
until after the turn of the century. According to comparative
statistics published by the U.S. Bureau of Education in 1905,
Memphis enrolled fewer pupils, had lower attendance rates and
shorter terms, and spent less money per pupil for instruction,
supervision, and all educational purposes than the average for
cities of over 8,000 people. By 1905, when the city's financial
position had improved somewhat, Memphis was about average among
southern cities on length of term and spending for education. ⁷³

Nevertheless, a 1912 study of urban public education published
by the Russell-Sage Foundation rated Memphis schools the worst among
the nation's cities on several counts. Memphis was reported to have
the smallest percentage of its scholastic population in school and
the highest failure and dropout rates. ⁷⁴ In 1916 school board
President Norfleet informed the city commissioner that Memphis
ranked thirey-ninth in education among the forty-two cities in its
size class, according to Census Bureau figures, although it rated
first in parks and recreation and average for other public
services. ⁷⁵ Bureau of Education experts who surveyed the Memphis
system in 1919 concluded that although teachers' salaries compared
well with those in other cities, Memphis needed to spend at least
20 percent more than it did on public education and that the city
was in a financial position to increase its support for the public
schools. ⁷⁶

The Bureau of Education Report revealed many weaknesses of the
Memphis school system. In 1919 only about 30 of the more than 550
elementary teachers and principals had graduated from a "recognized"
college. With comparatively little supervision at best, the board
had been forced to eliminate the position of supervisor of primary
teachers. Central High School lacked accreditation, and the black
high school was "pitiable." The national educators judged the
curriculum to be "out of touch with life" and too dependent upon
rote memory. ⁷⁷

Overcrowding in the 1920s caused classes to be doubled up and
cloak rooms and halls to be pressed into service. Two hundred
teachers did not have regular classrooms in 1922. ⁷⁸ Among the
"deplorable" conditions reported in black schools were "insanitary
conditions" that health officers would not have permitted to "exist
even in the case of livestock:" cracker box seats, leaky roofs
requiring umbrellas indoors, and classes meeting on school steps. ⁷⁹
In 1926 Memphis spent only $51.61 per capita for grammar school
instruction compared to an average of $76.30 for all American
cities. ⁸⁰ Although Memphis school board members, educators, and
community activists kept abreast of the latest developments
nationally and endeavored to adopt educational innovations as
rapidly as possible, a large municipal debt, strong local support

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