The colonial enthusiasm of the early 1880s gave way to disillusionment
at the end of the decade. The exaggerated hopes and promises had not
been fulfilled; disappointment in colonial affairs was thus added to the
discontent caused by the Kulturkampf and the anti-Socialist cam-
paign. On March 9, 1888, Emperor Wilhelm I died and his son, Fried-
rich III, who succeeded him, died three months later ( June 15) of
cancer of the throat. Wilhelm II became emperor at age twenty-nine;
he was unlike his father or grandfather in behavior or outlook. Wilhelm
II was of medium height, fair complexion, and restless temperament.
He was sensitive all his life about his withered left arm, which had
been crippled at birth. His main interest was the army, but instead of
concentrating on military affairs, he occupied himself with the trap-
pings and trivia of military life and wore a uniform at all times. (He is
said to have appeared in the full dress uniform of an admiral at a per-
formance of The Flying Dutchman.) He admired and tried to emulate
his grandfather, Wilhelm I, but he was closer to his granduncle, Fried-
rich Wilhelm IV, in his indecision, bombastic and deceptive oratory,
and narrow view of royal prerogatives. ¹

Apart from these characteristics, the difference in age between the
new emperor and the chancellor, now seventy-three, would have made
it difficult even under the most favorable conditions to continue the
close cooperation that had existed between Bismarck and Wilhelm I.
For Bismarck such cooperation was crucial because his office and
power were based exclusively on the confidence of the emperor. Inas-
much as the Reichstag in Germany (and the Parliament in Prussia)
lacked the power to choose a government, the Reich chancellor and
Prussian prime minister were appointed by the German emperor and
king of Prussia (combined in the person of Wilhelm II) and served at
his pleasure. It is well to remember that it was Bismarck himself who,
during his entire term in office, vigorously opposed all attempts to

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