of Gandia, began hostilities ( 1495). He failed, and was
assassinated by unknown persons, who threw his body into
the Tiber. The incapable Juan was succeeded by his brother
Cæsar. This man, who is to be counted among the great
criminals of the human race, was also a crafty diplomatist and
a brave soldier. Thanks to his bold efforts and to his
strategies, which excited the admiration of Machiavelli, Cæsar
captured successively Romagna and other parts of the domain
of St. Peter. Bologna alone escaped him. He even intended
to annex Florence, but circumstances prevented him from
executing this plan. ¹ With the help of his son Caesar Borgia,
Alexander VI. suppressed his proud vicars, those rebel officials
who had for so long defied the Holy See. He gave the spoils
to his sons. Cæsar, the contriver of the conquest, had, as
was fitting, the greater share. Juan, who in 1501 was still in
the cradle, received several duchies. Roderigo, the son of
Lucretia, was not forgotten. The pontifical state--with the
exception of Bologna and Perugia--became the property of the
Borgias and of their descendants. ² The domain of St. Peter
was alienated, and ceased to exist. Its place was taken by
lay duchies. Alexander VI. demolished the work slowly
elaborated and jealously defended by his predecessors. He
betrayed the Holy See.

Yet by the irony of fate it happened that this traitor
was one of the most active agents in restoring the pontifical
state. It need not be said that this happened in spite of him;
for he had taken every measure to prevent that result.

This leads us to the mention of Julius II. At the time
when this Pope took in hand the government of the Church,
all the cities which had submitted to Borgia were endeavour-
ing to shake off the yoke which Alexander VI. had imposed
upon them; and Venice took advantage of the movement for
emancipation to make the conquest of Romagna. Another
pope would have yielded; not so Julius II., who had no eccle-
siastical spirit, but, to make up for it, had a genius for war.
With an audacity which increased in the face of danger, he
made himself the intrepid champion of the rights of the Holy

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