The new edition of the Theologische Realenzyklopedie, the first to include an en-
try on confessionalism, defines it as the exclusive focusing on one's own confes-
sion and its differentiation from other doctrinal formulations. ¹ The process of con-
fessionalization is now recognized as a significant aspect of the Reformation and
an incisive development in the history of early modern Europe. ² It has received
considerable scholarly attention over the past twenty years. Heinz Schilling and
Wolfgang Reinhard, who were in the vanguard of research into the phenomenon,
have noted its political, social, and intellectual dimensions. ³ Most studies, how-
ever, have concentrated on the first two: the proliferation of church ordinances,
the interaction between church and state authorities, and the control of social be-
havior through church discipline. Those concerned with the intellectual dimension
of confessionalization tend to focus on its effects in the field of education. This book
examines the Kulturbedeutung of confessionalization in a broader sense, studying its
role in the transformation of habits of thought. ⁴

Humanism penetrated Northern Europe a generation before Luther began his
career as a reformer. A great deal has therefore been written about the influence of
humanism on the Reformation, much of it in response to Moeller's epigrammatic
assertion Ohne Humanismus keine Reformation. ⁵ My study reverses the question,
asking: How did the Reformation affect humanism? It is clear that the intellectual
movement shaped the Reformation Debate and was being shaped by it in turn.
Weighed in the balance, however, the religious movement was preponderant. It was,
after all, driven by the twin forces of popular demand and professional interest,
whereas humanism was advanced by an educated minority only. It is correct there-
fore to say that humanism influenced the course of the Reformation, but the dy-
namics of the relationship are better described by saying that humanism was co-
opted, perhaps even exploited, in the religious debate. Reformers traded on the
popularity of humanism to promote their cause among young intellectuals; Catho-
lic reactionaries traded on its notoriety to enlist the support of the establishment
against it. In both camps, those who had been trained in the studia humaniora
plucked from its cornucopia what was useful for the advancement of their cause and
transformed or suppressed what was unsuited to their purpose. Accordingly, they
employed humanistic philology and humanistic concepts of history to make their

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