"THE medieval trade routes between eastern Europe and western and
southern Asia fall into two groups: the northern, which passed mainly
by land, and the southern, which passed mainly by sea. The former
communicated with Central Asia, China, India and Asia Minor; the
latter through Syria and Egypt. Each group had branches which en-
tered Asia near Aleppo and diverged in the direction of Tabriz and
Baghdad. . . . For most goods the southern routes, especially that by
the Red Sea, were cheaper because they ran mostly by Sea; but this
consideration was less important in the case of the costlier spices, es-
pecially as they were liable to suffer damage in the holds of ships." ¹

The northern land routes which served Constantinople were four
in number: (1) From Tana at the mouth of the Don and over the head
of the Caspian Sea to India or China. (2) From Trebizond to Tabriz
and so to the East around the end of the Caspian Sea. (3) From
Lajazzo on the Gulf of Alexandretta, via Tabriz, or (4) via Baghdad,
to the East, either across Asia or through the Persian Gulf.

Trebizond and Lajazzo were the chief "vestibules to the Mongol
lands." Until about 1340, by which time the Mongol Empire had broken
up, the conduct of trade between the West and the Far East was regu-
lar and not difficult. The Mongols were pagan but tolerant. Even when
the western division of the Mongols turned Mohammedan, and the
Turks began to expand, intercourse between East and West continued,
though not with the same ease as formerly. The Mohammedanized
Mongols and Turks were hostile to the presence of Christian mer-
chants among them in the interior, but willing to trade with them in
the Black Sea, Aegean and Mediterranean ports. The only country
where there was almost complete cessation of commercial relations
was Mameluke Egypt. The pope never forgave the Mamelukes for
destroying the kingdom of Jerusalem and forbade all commercial in-
tercourse with Egypt. The penalties were excommunication, loss of
civil rights, deprivation of inheritance and the right to dispose of prop-
erty by will. The pope dreamed of creating an international squadron
to patrol the Mediterranean and suppress illicit traffic. The fleets of

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