Negotiation is a process of two or more parties combining their conflicting points
of view into a single decision. It is designed to be a positive-sum exercise, on
the assumption that both parties will prefer the agreed outcome to the status quo,
and implies that everyone will be better off with an agreement than without one.
Although the parties are fixed, the values are flexible, and a decision is made
by changing the evaluation that parties give to those values in order to combine
them into a single form through a bargaining process. I. William Zartman ( 1977)
has identified several approaches to negotiation.

First is the Psychological Approach, which looks at the parties themselves
more than at the bargaining process and seeks to explain negotiated results in
terms of behavioral and attitudinal characteristics of the negotiating personnel.
This corresponds to building the trust factor in principled negotiation.

Next is the Convergence-Concession Approach, in which the parties react to
each other's concession behavior. This approach views negotiation as a type of
learning process, capturing intuitively and experimentally the flow of bargaining
activity. This corresponds to creative-idea generation in principled negotiation.

Last is the Formula/Detail Approach, where attention focuses on negotiating
the list of items to be included in the agenda and grouping them under commonly
agreed principles. Here, decisions are first needed on the "negotiability" and
"terms of reference" of the issues, where a formula is tied to an overall purpose
behind the negotiations ( Zartman, 1977:631). This corresponds to principles as
precedent in principled negotiation.

Zartman states that major negotiations of recent times were conducted through
a search for a single formula satisfactory to all sides, followed by a further search
for the implementation of this formula, through specification of the details nec-

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