The traditional emphasis of air pollution policy was on 'stationary'
sources of air pollution: either on large industrial plants which
poured out smoke and substances harmful to health, or on the
effects of coal fires in domestic households which produced 'smogs'
in cities such as London which seriously impaired movement
and led to significant numbers of additional deaths through res-
piratory diseases. The number of industrial plants has declined
throughout Europe, and those that remain use more efficient
methods for reducing pollution. Domestic legislation created
'smokeless zones' and, in any case, the spread of central heating
and other new forms of space heating reduced the domestic use
of coal. Although some stationary source problems remain, the
focus of the debate about air quality management in recent years
has been on pollution from 'mobile sources' — such as cars and
trucks — and the consequent hazards to human health. For example,
in London traffic contributes 97 per cent of carbon monoxide
emissions, 77 per cent of particulate matter and 75 per cent of
nitrogen oxides ( Air Quality Management, March 1998, p. 1). This
chapter will focus on mobile source problems which have been
the principal policy concern of the EU in the late 1990s.

This is an area which faces particularly difficult problems of
policy formulation and implementation. One cannot easily satisfy
the fourth criterion of effectiveness, that of changing the behav-
iour of relevant actors. The pollution is largely caused by a very

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