Notes
1.
There is a considerable amount of internal migration, especially ruralurban migration. This is very significant in the case of a country such as China. There are an estimated 100 million internal migrants within China;
thus, if China were a series of independent countries, the world's "nation of
migrants" might double in size.
2.
According to the 1994 World Bank Development Report, the 828 million
people in the "high income countries" that, when ranked by GDP per
capita, begin with Ireland's $12,000 and end with Switzerland's $36,000,
represent 15 percent of the world's population and account for 78 percent
of the worlds GDP ( World Bank 1994: 163, 167).
3.
Middlemen recruiters and transporters have always been involved in the
migration process. Today, these understudied middlemen--who might be
considered arbitrageurs of differences between international labor markets--play a role in much of the illegal labor migration that occurs, usually
extracting fees from migrant workers or their employers equivalent to 25 to
100 percent of what the migrants will earn during the first year abroad.
4.
The Todaro model has three basic features: migrants make economic benefit and cost calculations to decide whether to move; economic payoffs are
calculated in expected terms; and the probability of finding employment in
the destination area is a function of the unemployment rate there. The
model explains why, for example, the creation of jobs in relatively highwage cities such as Cairo or Mexico City stimulates increased rural-urban
migration to them ( Todaro 1977, 196). The existence of job-search networks
for migrants can invalidate the third feature of the Todaro model. Despite
high unemployment in Los Angeles or Berlin, a migrant from southern Mexico or eastern Turkey with access to information about "immigrant
jobs" can be assured a job and income by moving there. Staying at home, on
the other hand, can mean economic uncertainty.
5.
There are about 13 million foreign-born workers among the 130 million
members of the U.S. labor force. In only three major occupations--those
with 1 million or more employees--is the majority of the workforce
arguably foreign born: janitors (3 million), farm workers (2 to 3 million),
and maids (1 million). The percentage of illegal workers among these immigrant workers is estimated to be less than 30 percent, so at most up to 30
percent of the workers in these most-migrant-dependent occupations could
be removed by aggressive enforcement of immigration laws.
6.
Some industrial countries are engaged in a debate over whether to discourage their employers from preferring unauthorized workers by stepping
up border and interior enforcement so that such workers are not available,
or to enforce labor laws so that migrant workers are not "exploited," or to
enforce both immigration and labor laws. Generally, promigrant groups
favor placing the emphasis on labor law enforcement, while restrictionist
groups favor border and interior immigration enforcement. Over the past
five years, a new element has entered the debate over immigration control.
In both North America and Western Europe, an argument is made that
some immigrants come to obtain social welfare program benefits, from education to health care to cash assistance, prompting a move in the U.S. Con-
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